social representations of intelligence and educational practices used by teachers facing academic...

Social representations of intelligence and Social representations of intelligence and educational practices used by teachers educational practices used by teachers

facing academic failurefacing academic failure__________

Représentations sociales de l’intelligence et Représentations sociales de l’intelligence et pratiques éducatives utilisées par les pratiques éducatives utilisées par les

enseignants en cas d’élèves en situation d’échec enseignants en cas d’élèves en situation d’échec scolaire.scolaire.

MATTEUCCI Maria CristinaMATTEUCCI Maria Cristina

Faculty of Psychology, University of Faculty of Psychology, University of Bologna, ItalyBologna, Italy

[email protected]@unibo.it

28th ICSR - Roma 28th August- 1st September 2006

Teachers’ assessment and Teachers’ assessment and educational practiceseducational practices

...not only determined by students’ ...not only determined by students’ achievements or performance ! achievements or performance !

1.1. moral aspectsmoral aspects also play a role in the also play a role in the feedback given to students;feedback given to students;

2.2. lay theorieslay theories and and social social representationsrepresentations influence both causal influence both causal ascription and behavioral choice ascription and behavioral choice (Abric, 1994 a, b; Roland-Lévy, 2002; (Abric, 1994 a, b; Roland-Lévy, 2002; Dweck et al., 1993; Dweck et. al., Dweck et al., 1993; Dweck et. al., 1995).1995).


The “effort” moral The “effort” moral preceptprecept

Moral precepts do affect reward and Moral precepts do affect reward and punishment in achievement settings, punishment in achievement settings, as in a courtroom (Weiner,2003)as in a courtroom (Weiner,2003)

““Ethic of Effort” in school: students Ethic of Effort” in school: students have to work hard and try to do as have to work hard and try to do as well as possible in school work. well as possible in school work.

The violation of this moral rule by a The violation of this moral rule by a student, results in a teacher’s student, results in a teacher’s behavioral reactionbehavioral reaction


Social representationsSocial representations

What are the precedents, the inputs What are the precedents, the inputs determining a social behavior, and in determining a social behavior, and in particular leading teachers to implement particular leading teachers to implement specific educational practices? Elements specific educational practices? Elements taking part in these processes are different.taking part in these processes are different.

Social representations can contribute to Social representations can contribute to understand them, showing how prior understand them, showing how prior widespread beliefs and implicit theories widespread beliefs and implicit theories influence causal attributions (Hewstone, influence causal attributions (Hewstone, 1989; Jaspars & Hewstone, 1990) and social 1989; Jaspars & Hewstone, 1990) and social practices (Abric, 1994a, b).practices (Abric, 1994a, b).


Teacher’s Social Teacher’s Social Representations of Representations of

Intelligence Intelligence The main result concerns teachers sharing the The main result concerns teachers sharing the

idea of intelligence asidea of intelligence as “a gift” “a gift” granted to the granted to the kids by nature, who seem to be more confident in kids by nature, who seem to be more confident in educational practices resulting in severe educational practices resulting in severe assessment and competition. assessment and competition.

In particular, they tend to think that there is no In particular, they tend to think that there is no other way to cope with poor performing students other way to cope with poor performing students but giving the “right” assessment of their results, but giving the “right” assessment of their results, inflict a punishment and/or encouraging them by inflict a punishment and/or encouraging them by pointing out the need to keep up with their pointing out the need to keep up with their schoolmates (Mugny & Carugati, 1985; Carugati schoolmates (Mugny & Carugati, 1985; Carugati & Selleri, 2004). & Selleri, 2004).


Purpose of the StudyPurpose of the Study

The study has two main goals:The study has two main goals:

1.1. to verify the role of to verify the role of lack of effortlack of effort as a as a cause held for school failure in cause held for school failure in educational strategies choices (educational strategies choices (self-self-reported)reported) made by teachers dealing made by teachers dealing with students’ failure.with students’ failure.

2.2. to test the role of to test the role of teachers’ social teachers’ social representations of intelligencerepresentations of intelligence on the on the causal ascription for failure and on causal ascription for failure and on educational practices. educational practices.


Study 1Study 1

H1H1: : explication of failure based on lack of effort explication of failure based on lack of effort (rather than on “lack of ability”), will give rise (rather than on “lack of ability”), will give rise to the ascription of a greater responsibility to the ascription of a greater responsibility toward low-achieving students, and to an toward low-achieving students, and to an emotional reaction of “anger” , as well as emotional reaction of “anger” , as well as leading to choose mainly severe practices with leading to choose mainly severe practices with retributive purpose (versus utilitarian purpose)retributive purpose (versus utilitarian purpose)

ParticipantsParticipants: 119 high school teachers (67.2% : 119 high school teachers (67.2% women; average age: 46.8, women; average age: 46.8, SDSD = 7.9) of Italian = 7.9) of Italian high schools located in two regions of north-high schools located in two regions of north-central Italy (Marche and Emilia Romagna).central Italy (Marche and Emilia Romagna).


Study 1 Study 1

MaterialsMaterials: :

Two versions of a questionnaire Two versions of a questionnaire designed to recall a real situation of designed to recall a real situation of failure (focusing on a “failure (focusing on a “lack of effortlack of effort” ” versus “versus “lack of abilitylack of ability” student); ” student); several items aimed at assessing: several items aimed at assessing: responsibility; emotions, goals of responsibility; emotions, goals of intervention (utilitarian vs. intervention (utilitarian vs. retributive) and educational actions retributive) and educational actions


Purposes of educational Purposes of educational practicespractices

““Retributive Retributive purpose”purpose”

((or just desert or just desert approach) holds that approach) holds that the perpetrator the perpetrator deserves to be deserves to be punished, the punished, the punishment is an end punishment is an end in itself, proportionate in itself, proportionate to the wrongdoing.to the wrongdoing.

““Utilitarian purpose”Utilitarian purpose”

((or consequentialist or consequentialist perspective) considers perspective) considers the costs and the the costs and the benefits of punishment benefits of punishment and the justification for and the justification for punishment lies in punishment lies in prevention of future prevention of future transgression by the transgression by the perpetrator or by perpetrator or by others through others through imitation.imitation.

Carlsmith, Darley, & Robinson, 2002; Darley, Carlsmith, & Robinson, 2000; Fiske & Tetlock, 1997; Lerner, Goldberg, & Tetlock, 1998; Vidmar

& Miller, 1980; Weiner et al., 1997


Educational PracticesEducational Practices

24 items24 items - factorial analysis extracted 3 factors. - factorial analysis extracted 3 factors.

F1.F1. (“support practices”) includes 9 items related (“support practices”) includes 9 items related to practices focused on encouragement, to practices focused on encouragement, confidence, willingness and teacher confidence, willingness and teacher participation. participation.

F2.F2. (“severe practices”) contains six items (“severe practices”) contains six items covering severe practices centred on covering severe practices centred on punishment, negative evaluation and extra-punishment, negative evaluation and extra-homework. homework.

F3.F3. is composed by 3 items relating to a “wait and is composed by 3 items relating to a “wait and see” attitude, and is characterized by patient see” attitude, and is characterized by patient and general interventions concerning the and general interventions concerning the classroom atmosphereclassroom atmosphere


Study 1 - ResultsStudy 1 - Results

ResponsibilityResponsibility

2,8

1,3

4,1

1,2

0

0,5

1

1,5

2

2,5

3

3,5

4

4,5

"Lack of Effort" "Lack of Ability"

Student's responsability ** Teacher's responsibility *

** t (120)= 5.02, p. < .000 * n.s.(minimum score: 0; maximum score: 6)


Study 1 - ResultsStudy 1 - Results Educational Purpose Educational Purpose ((Mann-Whitney U Test)Mann-Whitney U Test)

54,7068,30 69,30

53,20

0,00

20,00

40,00

60,00

80,00

Me

an

Ra

nk

Lack of effort(Z =-2,38*)

Lack of ability(Z =-2,41*)

Practices with utilitarian purpose

Practices with retributive purpose *= < .05



Best-fitting model (failure for lack of Best-fitting model (failure for lack of effort)effort)

.35Student’s Responsibility

F1 Anger

Retributive goal

Severe educational

practices

E1

1

E2

1

.43

E5

1

E3

1

.28 .09


Study 2Study 2

H1H1: : “severe” educational practices “severe” educational practices depend on social representations of depend on social representations of intelligence “as a gift”, whereas intelligence “as a gift”, whereas “support practices” are predicted by “support practices” are predicted by social representations of intelligence social representations of intelligence as “an incremental issue”.as “an incremental issue”.

ParticipantsParticipants: : 213 teachers from 213 teachers from high schools located in a region of high schools located in a region of north-central Italy (Emilia Romagna) north-central Italy (Emilia Romagna)


Study 2Study 2

Materials and procedureMaterials and procedure: the : the same as in Study 1, with some same as in Study 1, with some additional measures. First of all additional measures. First of all teachers answered a set of items on teachers answered a set of items on beliefs and on social representations beliefs and on social representations about intelligence (Carugati & about intelligence (Carugati & Selleri, 2004; Dweck et al., 1995; Selleri, 2004; Dweck et al., 1995; Mugny & Carugati, 1985). Mugny & Carugati, 1985).



Social representations of intelligenceSocial representations of intelligence Factor analysis of the items concerning social Factor analysis of the items concerning social

representations of intelligence resulted in two representations of intelligence resulted in two factors (accounting for 32% of the variance – factors (accounting for 32% of the variance – after Varimax rotation). after Varimax rotation).

F1:F1: included seven items concerning beliefs included seven items concerning beliefs about intelligence as a natural gift, a fixed trait about intelligence as a natural gift, a fixed trait (alpha = 0.79).(alpha = 0.79).

F2:F2: included seven items concerning beliefs of included seven items concerning beliefs of intelligence as an incremental issue (alpha = intelligence as an incremental issue (alpha = 0.66). 0.66).


Study 2 - ResultsStudy 2 - Results F1 F1 You have a certain amount of You have a certain amount of

intelligence, and you can’t intelligence, and you can’t really do much to change it really do much to change it (.75)(.75)

Intelligence does not develop: Intelligence does not develop: it is an hereditary gift (.75)it is an hereditary gift (.75)

Intelligence is something Intelligence is something personal and it can be personal and it can be changed (.69) changed (.69)

People can learn new things, People can learn new things, but they can’t really change but they can’t really change their intelligence (.59)their intelligence (.59)

The development of The development of intelligence occur according intelligence occur according to a predetermined to a predetermined biological program (.43) biological program (.43)

F2F2 Through the effort into study, Through the effort into study,

students can increase students can increase their intelligence (.70) their intelligence (.70)

The development of The development of intelligence is a gradual intelligence is a gradual learning of the social rules learning of the social rules (.54)(.54)

Teachers’ competence is the Teachers’ competence is the better guarantee for the better guarantee for the intellectual development intellectual development of students (.44)of students (.44)

Intelligence is an individual Intelligence is an individual competence to adapt to competence to adapt to society (.34)society (.34)


Study 2 - ResultsStudy 2 - ResultsS.R. of

Intelligence as a

gift

Cause attributed:

student’s lack of effort

Student’s responsibili

tyAnger Retributi

ve goal

Severe educational practices

E11

E21

E31

11

E4 E5

1

E6

.18

.22

.04(n.s.)

.34 .42

.20

.57 .35


In summaryIn summaryThe final model is partially consistent with The final model is partially consistent with

theoretical predictions: theoretical predictions:

The model confirms a link between “lack of effort”, The model confirms a link between “lack of effort”, responsibility, anger, retributive purpose and severe responsibility, anger, retributive purpose and severe practices. practices.

Practices are predicted both indirectly through anger Practices are predicted both indirectly through anger and retributive purpose, and directly by the cause and retributive purpose, and directly by the cause labelled “lack of effort”. labelled “lack of effort”.

Severe educational practices are not directly Severe educational practices are not directly predicted by the S.R. of intelligence “as a gift”, but predicted by the S.R. of intelligence “as a gift”, but only indirectly through the retributive goal of only indirectly through the retributive goal of practices, such goal is, in its turn, is meaningfully practices, such goal is, in its turn, is meaningfully related to educational practices. related to educational practices.

The cause defined “lack of effort” blamed for failure The cause defined “lack of effort” blamed for failure by teachers is predicted by the S.R. of intelligence by teachers is predicted by the S.R. of intelligence “as a gift”. “as a gift”.


Discussion (I)Discussion (I)

Students’ lack of effort is blamed for Students’ lack of effort is blamed for failure by teachers, students will failure by teachers, students will accordingly be deem responsible for accordingly be deem responsible for their failure and teachers’ emotional their failure and teachers’ emotional reactions will show anger toward the reactions will show anger toward the former. former.

These elements will then elicit These elements will then elicit behavioral consequences resulting in behavioral consequences resulting in practices with retributive purpose and practices with retributive purpose and severe punishment.severe punishment.


Discussion (II)Discussion (II)

These results may be interpreted in These results may be interpreted in the light of the normative role of effort the light of the normative role of effort in school context: each and every in school context: each and every student is supposed to put effort in student is supposed to put effort in their studies because it is one of their their studies because it is one of their duties, and it is at the bases of the duties, and it is at the bases of the implicit contract “teacher-student”: implicit contract “teacher-student”: whoever breaches this duty is deemed whoever breaches this duty is deemed personally responsible for failurepersonally responsible for failure ! !


Discussion (III)Discussion (III)

Social representations of Social representations of intelligence play a role in intelligence play a role in determining the causal ascription determining the causal ascription and in the process leading to the and in the process leading to the choice of intervention strategies, choice of intervention strategies, namely between representations of namely between representations of intelligence “as a gift” and practices intelligence “as a gift” and practices with retributive purpose.with retributive purpose.


In conclusion…In conclusion…

Social representations of Social representations of intelligenceintelligence and and efforteffort seems to be seems to be two critical issues in the school two critical issues in the school context, particularly because of their context, particularly because of their key-roles in the process that mediate key-roles in the process that mediate between school failure and selected between school failure and selected intervention strategies. intervention strategies.


Caution in Caution in generalization!generalization!

Given the limitations of the present work, Given the limitations of the present work, suggesting caution in interpreting and make suggesting caution in interpreting and make generalization over the results, this study may generalization over the results, this study may be considered as a step forward in be considered as a step forward in understanding the school environment and understanding the school environment and teacher-student relationships, particularly in teacher-student relationships, particularly in the event of school failure. the event of school failure.

However, further investigation is needed, first However, further investigation is needed, first and foremost to verify the link between social and foremost to verify the link between social representations of intelligence, responsibility representations of intelligence, responsibility and justification for school performance.and justification for school performance.


Principal References Principal References Dweck, C.S., Chiu, C., Hong, Y. (1995).Dweck, C.S., Chiu, C., Hong, Y. (1995). Implicit Implicit

Theories and Their Role in Judgment and Reactions: A Theories and Their Role in Judgment and Reactions: A World From Two Prospectives. World From Two Prospectives. Psychological InquiryPsychological Inquiry, , 6 6 (4),(4), 267-28 267-28

Matteucci, M.C., & Gosling, P. (2004).Matteucci, M.C., & Gosling, P. (2004). Italian and Italian and French teachers faced with pupil’s academic failure: the French teachers faced with pupil’s academic failure: the norm of effort. norm of effort. European Journal of Psychology of European Journal of Psychology of Education, 19Education, 19(2), 147-166(2), 147-166

Mugny, G., & Carugati, F. (1985).Mugny, G., & Carugati, F. (1985). L’intelligence au L’intelligence au plurielpluriel. [Social representations of intelligence. Cambridge: . [Social representations of intelligence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press] Cousset : Del Val. Cambridge University Press] Cousset : Del Val.

Weiner, B. (1995).Weiner, B. (1995). Judgment of responsibility. A Judgment of responsibility. A foundation for a theory of social foundation for a theory of social conduct. conduct. New York, London: Guilford Press.New York, London: Guilford Press.

Weiner, B. (2003).Weiner, B. (2003). The classroom as a courtroom. The classroom as a courtroom. Social Social Psychology of Education, 6Psychology of Education, 6, 3-15., 3-15.

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