lecture phono

11

MINISTÈRE DE L’ENSEIGNEMENT SUPÉRIEURUNIVERSITÉ DE SOUSSE com/hsalhi/ Courses and in the Internet. the "cially hose

related to your exam

FACULTÉ DES LETTRES ET DES SCIENCES HUMAINESDÉPARTEMENT D’ANGLAIS

com/hsalhi/ Courses and in the Internet. the "cially hose related to your exam

Structure of English:Phonology and Morphology

Dear Students, “You are invited to partake in the very real pleasure of

playing with the language system”

The Course

Structure of English:Phonology and Morphology

Dear Students, “You are invited to partake in the very real pleasure of

playing with the language system”

The Course

Lecturer: H. Salhi WEEK

Course Description

By Hammouda Ben Ammar Salhi

Teacher of Translation and Linguistics

Web Site: http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/

E-mail: [email protected]

COURSE DESCRIPTION AND OBJECTIVES

|OBJECTIVESThis course provides third year students with the opportunity to grasp the basic principles, methods and terminology of phonological and morphological analysis through a detailed study of the phonological system and morphological structure of Standard English. The course will be concerned with a practical rather than theoretical study of the English phonology and morphology. Throughout we will bear in mind the importance of applying those principles and methods to other languages.

|THE SUCCESSFUL STUDENT will know what the basic concepts of phonology and morphology are (phonemes, features, rules,

roots, affixes, etc.) know what is entailed by the relation between phonetics and phonology, esp. from the point

of view of the latter.

know how these concepts are usually applied to bodies of empirical data from natural languages

be able (at a basic level) to him/herself creatively apply these concepts to some given empirical data, be able of formulating rules, for instance.

be able to identify and describe the different morphemes of a given word.

And, most importantly,be able to enjoy the system of sounds and morphemes to ensure exam (and life) success.

OUTLINE OF THE COURSEIntroduction. Part one: Phonology (7 weeks)Chapter 1: Basic concepts of phonological analysis (2 weeks)

1. Phonemes and allophones2. Tests for the identification of phonemes and

allophones: minimal pairs, complementary distribution and free variation

Chapter 2: Major distinctive features (3 weeks)

1. Main class features: Consonantal and non-consonantal, Syllabic and non-syllabic,and Sonorant and non-sonorant

2. Cavity features: Labial and non-labial3. Tongue body features: High and non-high,

Low and non-low, and Back and non-back4. Laryngeal features: Voiced and voiceless5. Manner features: Continuant and non-

continuant,

Lateral and non-lateral, and Nasal and non-nasal

6. Prosodic featuresLong and short

Chapter 3: Phonological processes and rules (2 weeks)

1. What is assimilation?1.1. Direction of assimilation1.2. Assimilation across word boundaries

2. Voice assimilation3. How to formulate a phonological rule?

Part Two: Morphology (5 weeks)Chapter 1: Basic concepts of

morphological analysis (1 week) Lexemes and word-forms,

w w w . f r e e w e b s . c o m / h s a l h i

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/

Lecturer: H. Salhi WEEK

morphs, morphemes and allomorphs

Chapter 2: Types of morphemes (2 weeks) Roots, affixes, stems and bases Inflectional and derivational morphemes

Chapter 3: English word formation processes (2 weeks)

Major processes Minor processes

GRADING You will be graded according to the following scale:

1. Phonology: 12 (or 13) points2. Morphology: 8 (or 7) points

w w w . f r e e w e b s . c o m / h s a l h i

Page 2

The slogan

‘When you are fed up with the (language) system,

It means that you are fed up with (the) life (exam)”

The Lecturer

www.freewebs.com/hsalhiPage 51 of 27

Introduction

In this course, we shall handle language as a grammatical set of rules. That is, we shall attempt to introduce students to some rules constraining the use of language. Many people mistakenly think that words are the smallest units in language. In Fact, there are smaller units in language. In this course, we will see the smallest meaningful units (i.e. morphemes) as well as the smallest sound units (i.e. phonemes). In the first part, we will investigate the word as a combination of sounds. In other word, we will see how, and according to which rules, sounds form words. In the second part, however, we will see how words are composed of different types of morphemes.

Language can be studied as a structure at different levels. The levels are assumed to be ordered in a hierarchy. The following figure shows such a hierarchy.

Semantic level: deals with meaning

Syntactic level: deals with sentence-structure

Morphological level: deals with word-structure

Phonology (or phonemics): deals with sound systems

The task of describing the grammatical aspects of a language is seen as working out, in separate stages, first the pronunciation, then the word-structure, then the sentence-structure and finally the meaning of utterances. In this course, however, we shall only be concerned with the first two levels; i.e. phonology and morphology.

www.freewebs.com/hsalhi1 of 27

Part One: Phonology

What is Phonology?

Phonology is a branch of linguistics, closely related to phonetics, which studies the manners of organization and usage of the speech sounds in natural languages. The history of this science reaches ancient times, as the Greek and Roman grammarians also investigated the phonological systems of their languages. The foundations for modern phonological inquiries were laid in the nineteenth century by linguists such as Ferdinand de Saussure and Henry Sweet. Phonetics deals with the smallest chunks of language, yet it is in connection with other linguistic disciplines like morphology, because adding morphemes may change the meaning of words and their pronunciation, frequently following patterns. Phonetics is also related with syntax, as depending on a function of a word in a sentence it can be pronounced differently with a shifted phrasal stress and with changed intonation. Similarly, this branch of linguistics is connected with semantics because of intonation constraints. While phonetics studies the production and perception of the speech sounds, phonology is more interested in the abstract, that is mental aspects of these sounds. It inquiries into and describes the patterns of sounds and sound types which native speakers acquire intuitively.

However, since the term 'speech sounds' seems to be used mainly in phonetics, phonologists speak of phonemes. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in the human language. Yet it is not identical with the sound itself, it is rather a theoretical representation without mentioning its position in a syllable, word, or phrase. One important feature of phonemes is their contrastiveness which enables their identification. It is by contrasting the two phonemes, for example /k/ and /g/ that can be seen that they differ in at least one feature, like voicing. Therefore we shall devote a whole chapter, in this course, for distinctive features. All languages have a set of such distinctive phonemes. By and large, it seems that the majority of languages have about 30 phonemes, but there are some that have as few as 11 or as many as almost 150. The English language, it is said, has about 43 phonemes, depending on the variety of English in question. Even though the number of phonemes may differ from language to language, the sets are always limited, but enable speakers to create unlimited numbers of words. In English the word ‘step’ consists of four phonemes, and the word ‘pest’ has the same four phonemes, yet since they are in different order the meaning is not the same. Phonology also investigates the possible sequences of phonemes in a given language.

Therefore, it indirectly studies word formation processes, as they too are constrained by the rules of phonotactics, that is allowable organization (or sequences) of phonemes. Thus it is very unlikely that any English word should begin with ng- or the sound /?/ while this sound is quite common in the middle, or at the end of English words. However, the fact that phonotactic constraints do not allow for some sounds in a language to occur in certain positions, which confines the word-coining and word formation processes of a language, it does not mean that such words do not appear in that language. Sometimes loan words may break the phonological rules of a given language and still be in use, as is the case with the initial position of the /ʃn/ sound in English. By and large, words with such a sound in the initial position have started appearing in English only recently and all of them are loan words: schnapps, schnitzel, schmo.


http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/semantics.htm

http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/syntax.htm

http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/language.htm

http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/phonetics.htm

The analysis of the possible sequences of phonemes focuses not only on phonemes themselves, but also on syllables and clusters, though the present course does not devote any section to syllables. Therefore, we are going to brush up your memory with what you have seen in the course of Pronunciation of 2nd year. A syllable must comprise a vowel, but usually there is also a consonant (C) before the vowel (V). Syllables are frequently described as consisting of an onset, which is a consonant, or a few consonants, and a rhyme, often subdivided into a nucleus (a vowel), and coda (any following consonants). In the English language coda does not always have to occur in a syllable, like for instance in the words: he (CV), or too (CV). Clusters, or consonant clusters are simply two or more consonants one after another. Clusters, like other phonotactic rules, are characteristic of a given language, for instance the /st/ cluster in English can be an onset: street, or a coda: highest, however it is impossible in Japanese.

Apart from analyzing the phonemes of a language, clusters and syllables, phonology also deals with the processes that occur in everyday, fluent speech. The most frequent processes that can be observed in casual speech are assimilation and elision, though, in the present course, we are going to focus only on the assimilation process. Assimilation is a process in which certain sounds copy the characteristics of another, adjacent sound. Elision is a process in which some sounds, or even syllables are omitted and not pronounced at all, although in other situations they are normally uttered. Elision occurs not because of laziness of speakers, but to make the pronunciation more fluent. But let un start from the beginning now, the basic concepts of phonological analysis.


Chapter One

Basic Concepts

Of Phonological Analysis

1. Phonemes and Allophones

It is essential to consider sounds from a functional (i.e. difference in meaning) point of view, that is not to take them only as individual physical sounds, but rather of families of sounds which are considered as one in a given language. Such a family of sounds is called phoneme. Members of the same phoneme family, i.e. the various executions of that sound in reality are called allophones (or variants) of that phoneme. Phonemes (which are written between slashes, e.g. /i/) and allophones (which are written between brackets, e.g.[i]) are two of the most basic and important concepts in phonetics and phonology. You have already been introduced to them last year in the course of Introduction to Linguistics. Therefore, you can refer back to this course for more details about these two concepts.

For instance, the two phonemes /t/ and /k/, each of which has a range of allophones which differ slightly from each other. Utter the following words slowly: car keys. You will notice that in car, the back of the tongue touches the part of the soft palate near the uvula, at the very back of the roof of your mouth, but in keys it is the more front part of the soft palate near the hard palate that the tongue makes contact with. The two allophones of ‘k’ are physically different. But they are not functionally different. They cannot be used to distinguish word meaning. In other words, if we pronounce car with that more fronted variant as pronounced in keys, we still understand that it is a CAR. So the two realizations of ‘k’ are allophones of the same /k/ phoneme and which one is used on a given occasion depends on what the neighboring sounds happen to be. Functionality (or non-functionality) can be seen in some phonological tests such as the minimal pair test, the complementary distribution test and the free variation test.

2. Tests for the identification of phonemes

In this section we shall outline the basic procedures which linguists use to identify the phonemes or the functionally significant segments of a language.

2.1 The minimal pair test


When two words are identical in all respects, except for one segment (or sound), they are referred to as minimal pairs. For instance, read-lead, card-guard, mice-nice and bat-mat are minimal pairs. These examples of minimal pair test show that the sounds /r /and/l /, /k/and /g/, /m/and /n/, /b/and /m / are classified as separate phonemes because they are responsible for a difference in meaning in a minimal pair. In other words, minimal pairs are pairs of words whose pronunciation differs at only one segment (vowel or consonant sound), such as sheep and ship, or lice and rice. They are often used in listening tests and pronunciation exercises. Theoretically it is the existence of minimal pairs which enables linguists to build up the phoneme inventory for a language or dialect, though the process is not without difficulties.

2.2 The Complementary distribution test

When two sounds are in complementary distribution, they are barred from occurring in identical environments: there is a rigid division of labour so that one sound appears in certain contexts and the other in some different ones. Thus, the very back [k] allophone (or variant) of the phoneme /k/ that we have seen above ( in the section of phonemes and allophones) occurs before back vowels and the fronted [k] as in keys before front vowels. But in case the two allophones occur in exactly the same environment, we can say then that this is a case of free variation.

2.3 The Free variation test

Sometimes a phoneme may also have free variants. For example, the final consonant of cup may not be released by some speakers so there is no audible sound at the end of this word. In this case, it is the same word pronounced in two different

ways: [kʰʌpʰ] and [kʰʌpU ], with the diacritic “ > ” indicating “no audible release” or “unreleased sound” in IPA symbols, i.e. the sound is not actually heard. The difference may be caused by dialect or personal habit, instead of by any distribution rule. Such a phenomenon is called free variation. Free variation is often found in regional

differences. For example, most Americans pronounce the word ‘either’ as [iːðɚ] whereas most British people say [aɪðə]. Individual differences may also determine the

use of [dɪrɛkʃn] or [darɛkʃn] for the word ‘direction’.

The following are other examples, consider the following words containing [p] and [pU]; [pU] represents an unreleased voiceless bilabial stop:

Leap [lip] leap [li pU] Soap [sop] soap [so pU]Troop [trup] troop [tru pU]Happy [hæpi] ---- *[hæ pUi]


Chapter Two

Major

Distinctive Features

Introduction

Speech sounds are divided up into classes according to a number of properties. For

example, consonants are described according to their places and manners of

articulation, and vowels, which have no place nor manner of articulation, are described

according to their frontness or backness. The idea of Distinctive Features was first

developed by Roman Jacobson (1896-1982) in the 1940s as a means of working out a

set of phonological contrasts or oppositions to capture particular aspects of language

sounds. Since then several versions have been suggested, so if you read books on

phonology published at different times, expect to find different sets of features.

Some of the major distinctions include [consonantal], [sonorant], [nasal] and [voiced].

The feature [consonantal] can distinguish between consonants and vowels, so all

consonants are [+consonantal] and all vowels [–consonantal]. [sonorant] distinguishes

between what we call obstruents (stops, fricatives and affricates) and sonorants (all

other consonants and vowels), with obstruents being [–sonorant] and others

[+sonorant]. [nasal] and [voiced] of course distinguish nasal (including nasalized)

sounds and voiced sounds respectively.

These are known as binary features because we can group them into two

categories: one with this feature and the other without. Binary features have two


values or specifications denoted by “ + ” and “ – ” so voiced obstruents are marked

[+voiced] and voiceless obstruents are marked [–voiced].

In contemporary phonology, some twenty such features are used to group speech

sounds from different angles. But in the present course we are going to focus on the

main features distinguishing English sounds.

Why is it necessary to work with features?

For the purposes of making phonological analyses and extracting the rules governing language, it is necessary to look beyond the phoneme and focus on those basic phonological ingredients called distinctive features, which phonemes are made of. According to Francis Katamba1, the belief that the phoneme is the atomic, basic building block of phonology is no more tenable for a number of reasons, but chief among them is the fact that the phonological behaviour of phonemes is largely determined by the phonetic features which they are made of.

1. Major class features

If we look at the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), which you have a copy of it in your workbook with English sounds highlighted, we can find out six major classes: consonants and non-consonants, syllabics and non-syllabics, sonorants and non-sonorants (or obstruents). These form the major class features.

a. Consonantal Vs non-consonantal

Consonantal sounds (or [+consonantal]) are produced with drastic (or strong) stricture (obstruction) of the airstream, non-consonantal sounds (or [- consonantal]) are made without such obstruction.

All obstruents (this term shall be explained below), nasals, and liquids are consonantal (or [+consonantal]).

Vowels and glides (or semi-vowels, they are [w], [j], [?] and [h] in English) are non-consonantal (or [- consonantal])

b. Syllabic Vs non-syllabic [+/- syllabic]

Syllabic sounds are sounds which function as syllable nuclei; non-syllabic sounds occur at syllable margins. Vowels are syllabic and so are syllabic consonants such as [l] in bottle and candle or the nasal [n] in cotton and [m] in bottom.

c. Sonorant Vs non-sonorant [+/- sonorant]

Here we speak about the feature of sonority, means that spontaneous voicing after the production of some sounds labeled [+ sonorant], while [- sonorant] sounds or non-

1 Francis is Professor of Linguistics within the Department of Linguistics and English Language, Lancaster University. His

research interests are in the areas of English phonology and morphology, morphological theory, phonological theory, and African linguistics. His recent articles include 'The word in Luganda' . In Studies in African Linguistic Typology Voeltz , F. K. Erhard (ed.) Typological Studies in Language 64, pp. 171-93, (written with Larry Hyman 2006), 'The syllable in Luganda phonology and morphology'. For students who eager continue their postgraduate studies in Linguistics, Professor Katamba can be reached through the following E-mail: [email protected]


mailto:[email protected]

sonorant sounds or even obstruent sounds have a vocal cavity disposition which inhibits (prevents) spontaneous voicing.

Normally all sonorants are voiced sounds and obstruents are voiceless.

vowels, nasals, and liquids are sonorant

stops, fricatives, and affricates are obstruent

2. Cavity features

These features refer to place of articulation. They specify where in the vocal tract modifications of the airstream take place in the production of a particular sound. For instance, in the production of some sounds, the main obstruction of the airstream is no back than the alveolar ridge such as in the labials [m] and [b], these are called anterior sounds or [+ anterior], but we are going to choose only one feature among the cavity feature for study, the labiality feature.

Labial Vs non-labial [+/- labial]

In case there is a stricture (or narrowing) made with the lips, the sound produced is labial, if there is no such stricture, the sound is non-labial. It is worth mentioning, however, that there is a considerable degree of overlap between the group of sounds labeled as rounded and those labial sounds. Take the example of the [w] sound, for instance, it is both [+ labial] and [+ round].

3. Tongue body features

It is in accordance with the position of the body of the tongue that we assign some feature to sounds. The norm says that when the body of the tongue is in a neutral position, the vowels produced are said to be mid front vowels. But when it is higher the sound (whether it is a vowel or a consonant) will be [+ high] , when lower it will be [+ low] and when more back it will be [+ back].

High Vs non-high [+/- high]

High sounds, as we have seen above, are made with the tongue raised from neutral position while non-high sounds are made without such raising of the body of the tongue. High sounds include vowels like [i u], the glides [w j], alveo-palatal, palatalized, palatal and velar consonants. All other sounds are non-high.

Low Vs non-low [+/- low]

When a particular sound is produced with the tongue lying at a level below that which it occupies when in neutral position, that sound is [+ low], otherwise it is [- low].

Back Vs non-back [+/- back]

When the body of the tongue is retracted (pulled back) from neutral position , the sounds produced in this case are back. Sounds produced with the body of the tongue either in neutral position or pushed forward are non-back. This feature distinguishes between back vowels like [ u o ɔ] and front vowels like [ i e ɛ ].Of the consonants, velars, uvulars, and pharyngeals are back while labials, dentals, palatals as well as glottal are non-back.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel

4. Laryngeal features

voiced Vs voiceless [+/- voice]

When there is a vibration of the vocal cords at regular intervals, the sound produced in this case is voiced, voiceless sounds are made without such a periodic vibration. All vowels are voiced and consonants are either voiced or voiceless.

5. Manner features

The features of manner characterize the way in which the airstream is obstructed in the production of consonants.

Continuant Vs non-continuant [+/- continuant]

Continuants are sounds which are produced by impeding, but not completely blocking, the flow of the air; non-continuants are made by completely blocking the air through the centre of the vocal tract.

Affricates, laterals, nasals, and stops are non-continuants

All other sounds are continuants

Lateral Vs non-lateral [+/- lateral]

Lateral sounds are produced with the airflow through the centre of the mouth blocked but escapes over one or both sides of the tongue. [ l] is the only lateral liquid in English (the term liquid is conventionally used to refer to sounds similar to the English [ l] and [ r].

Nasal Vs non-nasal (oral) [+/- nasal]

A nasal sound is produced when the velum is lowered to allow the air to escape through the nasal cavity.

Nasal sounds include nasal stops [ m n ŋ] (these are stops because they are produced with complete blockage of the air at the place where the articulators meet, i.e. in the lips or the alveolar ridge or the velum for [m], [n] and [ŋ] respectively), as well as nasalized consonants, glides and vowels. All other sounds are oral or [- nasal].

6. Prosodic features

Prosodic features have to do with the duration of the production of a sound, its tone and stress. We will cover in this course only those long and short sounds;

Long Vs short [+/- long]

Length as a feature is clearly relative and undergoes some progression from the shortest to the lengthiest sound. But for the sake of simplicity we will have a binary account of it, that is either [+long] or [- long]. It should be mentioned here that length is a functional distinctive feature in Standard Arabic, i.e. it leads to a change in meaning. Take the example of the following two items that you know.

KatabaKaataba


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_nasal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_nasal

Clearly you can notice the difference in meaning introduced by the lengthening of the vowel [a] from a normal verb to a reflexive one.

In English, for example, the contrast between [ɪ] and [i] (as in seek /sik/ and sick /sɪk/) is rather being regarded as one between a tense sound versus a lax one. But still we will consider, in this course, that sounds like [ɪ] as [- long] and sounds like

[i] as [+ long].

Example:

Look at the features of the following English sounds.

Table 1: examplep b t u

Consonantal + + + -Continuant - - - +Labial + + - +Voiced - + - +

Below you can find some of the distinctive feature we have seen above applied for English consonant phonemes.

Table 2: Distinctive feature matrix for English consonant phonemes

p b t d k g f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h m n ŋ w l r j ʧ ʤ

consonantal＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋－＋＋－＋＋approximant

－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－＋＋＋＋－－

sonorant －－－－－－－－－－－－－－－＋＋＋＋＋＋＋－－continuant －－－－－－＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋＋－－－＋＋＋＋ –/+ –/+

nasal －－－－－－－－－－－－－－－＋＋＋－－－－－－lateral －－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－－＋－－－－voiced －＋－＋－＋－＋－＋－＋－＋－＋＋＋＋＋＋＋－＋

(Source: Radford, et al. 1999: 141)


Chapter Three

phonological processes and Rules

The phenomenon of variation in the pronunciation of phonemes in different positions is called allophony or allophonic variation. If we scrutinize the phonological change involved in allophonic variation, we can find out a number of general processes this change takes. In this chapter, we are going to see the commonest phonological process responsible for a number of such allophonic changes, the assimilation process.

1. What is Assimilation?

Assimilation takes place when there is a modification of a sound in order to make it more similar to some adjacent sound(s). Speakers of a language resort to assimilation in their pronunciation with a view to have a smoother, more effortless and more economical transitions from one sound to another. They usually try to conserve energy by using no more effort than is necessary to produce an utterance.

Let us begin by looking at the following sets of words. Consider their pronunciation in

each case.

Example 1


a. cap [kæp] can [kæd n]

b. tap [tæp] tan [tæd n]

Example 2

a. tent [tɛnt] tenth [tɛn̪θ]

b. ninety [naɪnti] ninth [naɪn̪θ]

Example 3

a. since [sɪns] sink [sɪŋk]

b. mince [sɪns] mink [mɪŋk]

In both examples 1a and 1b, the words differ in two sounds. The vowel in the second

word of each pair is “nasalized” because of the influence of the following nasal

consonant. In example 2, the nasal /n/ is “dentalized” before a dental fricative. In

example 3, the alveolar nasal /n/ becomes the velar nasal [ŋ] before the velar stop [k].

In this situation, NASALIZATION, DENTALIZATION, and VELARIZATION are all

instances of ASSIMILATION, a process by which one sound takes on some or all the

characteristics of a neighboring sound, as we have seen above.

1.1. Direction of assimilation

Similarly, there are two possibilities of assimilation: if a following sound is

influencing a preceding sound, we call it REGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION; the converse

process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as

PROGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION. All our examples in 1 – 3 are instances of “regressive

assimilation”.

1.2. Assimilation across word boundaries

Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown by the following:

Example 4

a. pan[ŋ]cake

b. sun[ŋ]glasses

Example 5

a. you can[ŋ] keep them

b. he can[ŋ] go now


2. Voice Assimilation

In addition to velarization, nasalization, dentalization and palatalization,

assimilation can be in terms of voice as well. For instance, assimilation studies of

English fricatives and affricates have shown that their voicing is severely influenced by

the voicing of the following sound. The five pairs of English fricatives and affricates are

listed in below.

List of English fricatives and affricates: f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ

Examples in 6 below show how fricatives and affricates in English may be assimilated

in voicing:

Example 6

a. five past [faɪvpɑːst] > [faɪfpɑːst]

b. love to [lʌvtə] > [lʌftə]

c. has to [hæztə] > [hæstə]

d. as can be shown [əzkənbɪʃəʊn] > [əskənbɪʃəʊn]

e. lose five-nil [luːzfaɪvnɪl] > [luːsfaɪvnɪl]

The first column of symbols shows the way these phrases are pronounced in slow

or careful speech while the second column shows how they are pronounced in normal,

connected speech. Investigations into other sounds reveal that DEVOICING, a process

by which voiced sounds become voiceless, in such contexts does not occur with other

sounds, such as stops and vowels.

These changes exhibit PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES in which an AFFECTED

SEGMENT undergoes a structural change in certain ENVIRONMENTS or CONTEXTS.

In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the

case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that

any phonological process must have three aspects to it: (a) a set of sounds to undergo

the process; (b) a set of sounds produced by the process; (c) a set of situations in

which the process.

We can represent the process by means of an arrow:

(4) /v/ [f]

Our data have shown that this does not only apply to /v/ but also to other fricatives,

like /z/. Therefore, we can make a more general rule to indicate that voiced fricatives

are transformed into voiceless fricatives before voiceless segments:


(5) voiced fricative voiceless / _____ voiceless

This is a PHONOLOGICAL RULE.

3. How to formulate a formal rule:

Now let’s take a look at the English prefix in- and see, in more detail, how phonological rules are formulated, starting from the observation to the formulation of the rule (the scientific method I explained last year if you can remember).

[ɪm] [ɪn] [ɪ ŋ]

i[m]potent i[n]direct i[ŋ]conclusivei[m]partial i[n]dependent i[ŋ]consideratei[m]possible i[n]tolerance i[ŋ]correcti[m]practical i[n]sufferable i[ŋ]completei[m]mature i[n]sufficient i[ŋ]convenienti[m]balance i[ŋ]gratitude

Question: what do you notice?

Answer: We notice that the nasal in the prefix in- has the same place of articulation as the following consonant:

[m] before [p, b, m] [+labial][n] before [t, d, s] [+alveolar][ŋ] before [k, g] [+velar]

We say: the nasal assimilates in place of articulation to its following consonant.

Consider the following data:

i[n]advisablei[n]animatei[n]ordinatei[n]eligible

Based on these data, [ɪn] occurs in the most environments: that is, before vowels, t, d and s.Therefore, we want to say that the underlying form of the prefix is /ɪn/.

The rule:

[ɪm] / ___ bilabial consonants [p, b, m]/ɪn/ [ɪ ŋ] / ___ velar consonants [k, g]

[ɪn] elsewhere [t, d, s] and vowels

A formal rule:As you have seen in the above figure, a formal rule should consist of the following:

a. The input, which states the sound or sounds affected by the rule, in the above case it is /ɪn/;

b. The arrow(s), which means ‘is realized as’ or ‘becomes’;c. What occurs to the right of the arrow(s) is the output of the rule;


d. Following the output, there is a diagonal line ‘/’ , to the right of that line is the environment, the ‘___’ line which forms part of the environment shows precisely where the changed segment is located;

So the rule reads: the prefix /ɪn/ becomes (or ‘is transformed into’) [ɪm] when it

appears before bilabial consonants, becomes [ɪŋ] when it appears before velar

consonants and becomes [ɪn] elsewhere.

Nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are also typical phonological processes

that can be represented by the following rules:

(7) Nasalization rule

[–nasal] [+nasal] / _____ [+nasal]

(8) Dentalization rule

[–dental] [+dental] / _____ [+dental]

(9) Velarization rule

[–velar] [+velar] / _____ [+velar]

Part Two: Morphology

What is Morphology?

Morphology is the part of linguistics that deals with the study of words, their internal structure and partially their meanings. It is also interested in how the users of a given language understand complex words and invent new lexical items. As morphology is concerned with word forms it is akin to phonology (which describes how words are pronounced, as we have seen in the first part of this course), it is also related to


http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/phonology.htm


http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/jezykoznawstwo.htm

lexical studies as the patterns examined by morphology are used to create new words. Furthermore, it is also linked with semantics as it deals with the meanings of words, as we shall see in the second semester.

Scholars differentiate between derivational morphology and inflectional morphology. The former is concerned with the relationships of different words, and with the ways in which vocabulary items can be built from some elements, as in un-speak-able; while the latter deals with the forms of one word that it takes up depending on its grammatical functions in a sentence. When it comes to English it appears that it rather takes advantage of derivational morphemes rather than inflectional ones.

Morphemes in morphology are the smallest units that carry meaning or fulfill some grammatical function. The word house itself consists of one morpheme, and because it can stand by itself it can be called a free morpheme. In the word houses there are two morphemes house, which is free, and s whish is a bound morpheme, because it cannot stand by itself as it would have no meaning. In the second example above the bound morpheme -s was attached to house – a free morpheme.

Chapter One

Basic Concepts

Of Morphological Analysis

We move now from an examination of the smallest segments of language (sounds) to a larger unit (the word). Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words. So, it is necessary to know what a word is. What we mean by a word is not always clear. This is due to the fact that the term ‘word’ is used to denote quite a good variety of senses. For instance, this term may refer to the word form or to the lexeme.

1. Lexemes and word-forms



What would you do if you come across a difficult word, say the word ‘flutter’ , for the first time in the below context?

She flattered eyelashes at him 2

You would probably look up that unfamiliar word in the dictionary, not under flattered, but rather flatter. This is because you know that flattered is not going to be listed in the dictionary. You also know, without consulting anybody, that the words fluttering and flutters will exist. Moreover, you know that fluttering, flutter, flattered and flutters are all different of the same abstract vocabulary item. This abstract vocabulary item is called LEXEME. So, the forms fluttering, flutter, flattered and flutters are REALISATIONS (or representations or manifestations) of the lexeme FLUTTER (lexemes are conventionally written in capital letters). They all share a core meaning although they are spelled or pronounced differently. Therefore, we can define a lexeme as the vocabulary item that is listed in the dictionary; in short it is a dictionary entry.

Example:

Question: which ones of the words in the table below belong to the same lexeme?

see catches taller boy catching

sees

sleeps women catch saw tallest sleeping

boys sleep seen tall jumped caught

seeing jump woman slept jumps jumping

Answer: we should all agree that:

As we have seen above, when we use the term ‘word’, it is not always the abstract vocabulary item or dictionary entry that is meant.

2 This sentence means she tried to attract him in order to persuade him to do something.

The physical word-forms are realizations of the lexeme see, sees, seeing, saw, seen SEEsleeps, sleeping, slept SLEEPcatch, catches, catching, caught CATCHjump, jumps, jumped, jumping JUMPTall, taller, tallest TALLboy, boys BOYwoman, women WOMAN


Rather, we use that term to refer to a particular physical realization of that lexeme, that is a particular WORD-FORM.

Example:

The verb lexeme SEE, has the word-forms see, sees, seeing, saw, seen The adjective lexeme GOOD, has the word-forms good, better, and best

However, any sense the term ‘word’ takes, it is still possible to decompose it into smaller units, namely morphemes, morphs, and allomorphs.

2. Morphs, morphemes and allomorphs

2.1. Morphemes

Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in a language. Free morphemes are morphemesthat can stand alone as a word, while bound morphemes cannot stand alone. Most bound morphemes are affixes, which (for English) fall into two broad groups, prefixes (attaching to thebeginning of the stem) and suffixes (attaching to the end of a stem).Morphemes with an independent meaning are called content/lexical morphemes, while morphemes that only provide grammatical information are called function/grammatical morphemes. Bear in mind not to confuse between morphemes (units of meaning) and syllables (units of articulation).

Examples (English) Unladylike

The word unladylike consists of three morphemes and four syllables.

Morpheme breaks:

un- 'not'

lady '(well behaved) female adult human'

-like 'having the characteristics of'

None of these morphemes can be broken up any more without losing all sense of meaning. Lady cannot be broken up into "la" and "dy," even though "la" and "dy" are separate syllables. Note that each syllable has no meaning on its own.

Dogs

The word dogs consists of two morphemes and one syllable:

dog, and

-s, a plural marker on nouns

Note that a morpheme like "-s" can just be a single phoneme and does not have to be a whole syllable.

Technique

The word technique consists of only one morpheme having two syllables.


Even though the word has two syllables, it is a single morpheme because it cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful parts.

2.2. Morphs and allomorphs

Consider the following words and comment on how their plural is formed, ignoring their spelling.How is the plural morpheme realized?

1. rat, book, laugh2. dog, reader, way3. wish, garage, fridge

The actual shapes morphemes – which are abstract units – occur in, are called morphs. Two or several morphs realizing one morpheme are called allomorphs of that morpheme. Thus, the {plural} morpheme of English has several allomorphs. Allomorphs whose occurrence can be predicted from the phonological context (like the voiced/voiceless plural allomorphs) are called phonologically conditioned, while 'irregular' allomorphs that only occur with certain unpredictable words are called lexically conditioned.

So, any language has a register of morphemes, the physical realizations of which are called morphs, as we have seen. While morphemes remain ideal abstract units, the corresponding morphs may show some variation. In the above case of the plural morpheme, for instance, various realizations are possible. These variations sound and look differently:

/z/ in "dogs, beds, etc.";/s/ in "cats, rats, etc."; /iz/ in "garages, wish, etc. "

All three morphs are different representations of the same morpheme of plurality. Several morphs that belong to the same morpheme are also called allomorphs: variants of one morpheme. In morphological transcription, morphs are commonly put between braces. The plural morph in "cats" thus becomes {cat}+{s} in morphological transcription.


Chapter Two

Types of Morphemes

After seeing that words have internal structure in the previous chapter, the time is ripe to examine the elements that ensure the building of words, so, we are going to see, in this chapter, the types of morphemes. Let us start by roots and affixes.

1. Roots and Affixes

A ROOT is a (usually free) morpheme around which words can be built up through the addition of affixes. The root usually has a more-specific meaning than the affixes that attach to it. eg.: The root 'kind' can have affixes added to it to form 'kindly', 'kindness', 'kinder', 'kindest'. The root is the item you have left when you strip all other morphemes off of a complex word. In the word ‘dehumanizing’, for example, if you strip off all the affixes -ing, -ize, and de-, human is what you have left. It cannot be divided further into meaningful parts. It is the root of the word.

An AFFIX is a bound morpheme which attaches to a base (root or stem). PREFIXES attach to the front of a base; SUFFIXES to the end of a base; INFIXES are inserted inside of a root. An example of a prefix is the 're-' of 'rewrite'; of a suffix, '-al' of 'critical'.

2. Stems and Bases

A BASE is an element (free or bound, root morpheme or complex word) to which additional morphemes are added. A base can consist of a single root morpheme, as with the 'kind' of 'kindness'. But a base can also be a word that itself contains more than one morpheme.

Example: (English)

We can use the word 'kindness' as a base to form the word 'kindnesses'; to make 'kindnesses', we add the plural morpheme, spelled '-es' in this case, to the base 'kindness'.

The STEM is that part of a word that is in existence before any inflectional affixes (i.e. those affixes whose presence is required by the syntax such as markers of plural in nouns, tense in verbs, etc.) have been added. Inflection shall be discussed in the


following section. In other words, A stem is the root or roots of a word, together with any derivational affixes, to which inflectional affixes are added.

Example: (English)

The verbs ‘tie’ and ‘untie’ are both stems. The inflectional third person singular suffix -s may be added to the stems to

form ‘ties’ and ‘unties’.

3. Inflectional and derivational morphemes

Bound morphemes can be divided into two major functional categories, namely DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES and INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES. These two categories reflect two main word-building processes, namely derivation and inflection. This is because derivational and inflectional morphemes form words in different ways. Derivational form new words either:

a. By changing the meaning of the base to which it is attached; e.g. kind vs unkind (both are adjectives but with opposite meanings); obey and disobey (both are verbs but with opposite meanings).

b. By changing the word-class that a base belongs to, for example the addition of –ly to the adjectives kind and simple produces the adverbs kind-ly and simp-ly.

c. By changing the grammatical sub-class of a word without moving it into a new word-class (as in the case of friend (noun) and friend-ship (another noun).

Below is a sample of some English derivational affixes. This is only a sample; there are far more affixes than presented here.

Some derivational affixes of English

Affix Class(es) of word to which affix applies

Nature of change in meaning

Examples

Prefix 'non-'

Noun, adjective Negation/opposite Noun: non-starter Adj.: non-partisan

Suffix '-ity' Adjective Changes to noun electric/electricity obese/obesity

Prefix 'un-' Verb Adjective

Reverses action opposite quality

tie/untie, fasten/unfasten clear/unclear, safe/unsafe

Suffix '-ous'

Noun Changes to adjective fame/famous, glamor/glamorous

Prefix 're-' Verb Repeat action tie/retie, write/rewrite

Suffix '-able'

Verb Changes to adjective; means 'can undergo action of

print/printable, drink/drinkable


http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticterms/WhatIsASuffix.htm

http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticterms/WhatIsSingularNumber.htm

http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticterms/WhatIsThirdPersonDeixis.htm

http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticterms/WhatIsAnInflectionalAffix.htm

http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticterms/WhatIsADerivationalAffix.htm

http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticterms/WhatIsARoot.htm

verb'

As for inflectional morphemes, they do not engender any change of the above mentioned kinds, but rather they are required by the syntax such as markers of plural in nouns, tense in verbs, etc., as we have seen above. See the table below for a list by the frequently used inflectional morphemes in English (all of them are suffixes). It should be mentioned that English has no inflectional prefixes but some other languages do.

Note that the above listed inflectional morphemes fall within what we call REGULAR INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY, and that you are also required to master the IRREGULAR INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY. The below table shows some English irregular inflectional morphemes:

Irregular inflectional morphology:Type of irregularity

Noun plurals Verbs: past tense Verbs: past participle

Unusual suffix oxen, syllabi, antennae

, taken, seen, fallen, eaten

Change of stem vowel

foot/feet, mouse/mice

run/ran, come/came, flee/fled, meet/met, fly/flew, stick/stuck, get/got, break/broke

swim/swum, sing/sung

Change of stem vowel with unusual suffix

feel/felt, kneel/knelt write/written, do/done, break/broken, fly/flown

Change in base/stem form (sometimes with unusual suffix)

, send/sent, bend/bent, think/thought, teach/taught, buy/bought

send/sent, bend/bent, think/thought, teach/taught, buy/bought

Zero-marking (no suffix, no stem change)

deer, sheep, moose, fish

hit, beat hit, beat, come

-s noun plural book-s

-s verb 3rd person, singular, present tense

sleep-s

-ed

verb past tense walk-ed

-ing

verb progressive (action) walk-ing

-er adjective

comparative degree tall-er

-est

adjective

superlative degree tall-est


Chapter Three

English Word Formation

Processes

1. Introduction

Although the terms ‘WORD FORMATION’ do not have nowadays a clear-cut, universally accepted usage, they are conventionally used to refer to all processes connected with changing the form of the word by, for example, affixation, which is a matter of morphology. In its wider sense word formation denotes the processes of creation of new lexical units. Although it seems that the difference between morphological change of a word and creation of a new term are quite easy to perceive there is sometimes a dispute as to whether blending is still a morphological change or making a new word.

There are, of course, numerous word formation processes that do not arouse any controversies and are very similar in the majority of languages:

2. Major processes

The below mentioned word formation processes are the most frequent or important in the English language.

2.1. Derivation or affixation

Derivation is probably the most common word formation process in the English language. It is achieved by adding affixes: prefixes “ are added at the beginning of a word, suffixes added to the end of a word, or infixes which are inserted inside a word,


http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/morphology.htm

but infixes are unusual in English and are especially common in Semitic languages like Standard Arabic. English prefixes include for example re-, un-, mis-, pre-, dis-; suffixes include for instance -ful, -less, -able, -or.

2.2. Compounding

Compounding is a process in which two different words are joined together to denote one thing. For example flower-pot is a compound made of two words: flower and pot, but it does not denote two things, it refers to one object. Some English compounds include: windmill, waterfall, fingerprint, scarecrow. Compounds are pronounced as one unit, but sometimes difficulties in writing arise: some compounds are written with hyphens: full-time; some are written separately: bank account, mini skirt; and some can be written in both ways.

2.3. Conversion

Conversion or zero derivation process is a change in function of a verb without changing its form. Nouns start to be used as verbs like: bottle “ to bottle, bottling” as in “ I’m bottling the compote”; butter “ to butter, buttered” as in “ I’ve buttered the bread”. Also verbs can become nouns: must “ a must” as in “Watching this film is a must”; guess “ a guess” as in “It was a lucky guess”.

3. Minor Processes

Other minor word-formation processes in English are also productive, the most productive ones are explained below.

Blending is very similar to compounding, but it is characterized by taking only parts of words and joining them. Famous English examples include: smog which combines smoke and fog, motel made of motor and hotel, Spanglish which is combination of Spanish and English; and guesstimate, from guess and estimate.

Borrowing is taking a word from one language and incorporating it into another. The English language has been very absorbent and took over words from all over the world, some of them include: biology, boxer, ozone from German; jackal, kiosk, yogurt from Turkish; pistol, robot from Czech.

Acronym is a word formed from initial letters of a few words in a phrase or a name. Some acronyms are pronounced by saying each letter separately, as in CD, DVD, VCR, IBM, FBI. Some are pronounced as words, like NATO, laser, AIDS, UNESCO.

Backformation is a process in which a word changes its form and function. Word of one type, which is usually a noun, is reduced and used as a verb. To show it on an example: the English word arms meaning weapon was backformed to arm to mean provide weapons, similarly edit was backformed from editor, or typewrite from typewriter.

Required Texts:


Katamba, Francis (1989) An Introduction to Phonology. Longman Group UK Limited.

Katamba, Francis (1993) Morphology, MACMILLAN Press LTD

Selected readings at one of the photocopy shops

Thanks for visiting www.freewebs.com/hsalhi.

This web site shall be my means of communication to you and vice versa.In addition to courses, you shall find the notifications I want to convey to you,

especially those related to your exam. As for you, you can write to me and to your colleagues using the “Guestbook” page you shall find on the left of the main page or any

other page, as shown below, or you go directly to the “contact me” page, there you can find a link also.

Thanks for your interest in linguistics and the Internet.

.

How to usethe web site

First step: log in the web site (www.freewebs.com/hsalhi)

Second step: log in (or enter) the guestbook page Home Oral Expression

Introduction to linguistics

Semantics and pragmatics

Translation theories

Notifications and Chat

Guestbook to leave a message Click here on the guestbook page

My Blog

related documents

Exams

cantact me

Photo Album

Third step : post your remark

Guestbook


End of the Course

Thank You and Good Luck

The end

End of the Course

Thank You and Good Luck

The end

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/myblog.htm

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/cantactme.htm

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/exams.htm

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/relateddocuments.htm

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/myblog.htm

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/guestbook.htm

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/notificationsandchat.htm

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/translationtheories.htm

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/semanticsandpragmatics.htm

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/introductiontolinguistics.htm

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/oralexpression.htm

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/index.htm

http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi

Name:

Email:

Scroll

Post your entry

press on the « post entry » button after you finish your remark, then you will see it posted in 30 seconds

الموقع على اإلنترنتمدرس الترجمة واللغويات بواسطة حمودة بن عمار الصالحي

: http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi / البريد اإللكتروني : [email protected] هذا بالطبع يوفر للطالب السنة الثالثة مع فرصة لفهم المبادئ األساسية األهداف | وصف المساقات واألهداف

واألساليب والمصطلحات المستخدمة في التحليل الصرفي والصوتي من خالل دراسة تفصيلية للنظام الصوتي والصرفي وسوف تشعر مع مسار العملية بدال من الدراسة النظرية لعلم األصوات اإلنجليزية للغة اإلنجليزية هيكل قياسي.

الطالب فإن | في جميع أنحاء سوف نضع في االعتبار أهمية تطبيق هذه المبادئ واألساليب لغات أخرى. والتشكل.نعرف ما هي المفاهيم األساسية لعلم األصوات والصرف و(الفونيمات والميزات والقواعد والجذور والالحقات ، الناجح

الخ.)

.من وجهة نظر األخير. نعرف ما هو الناجمة عن العالقة بين علم األصوات وعلم األصوات ، وإسبانيا

أعرف كيف يتم تطبيق هذه المفاهيم عادة للهيئات البيانات التجريبية من اللغات الطبيعية

تكون قادرة (على المستوى األساسي) لنفسه / نفسها تطبيق هذه المفاهيم بشكل خالق لبعض البيانات التجريبية معينة ، تكون قادرة على صياغة القواعد ، على سبيل المثال.

تكون قادرة على تحديد ووصفmorphemes.مختلفة من كلمة معينة

واألهم من ذلك ، تكون قادرة على التمتع نظام األصوات وmorphemes.لضمان امتحان (والحياة) النجاح

الخطوط العريضة للدورة

مقدمة.

)أسابيع 7األصوات )الجزء األول : علم

أسابيع)2المفاهيم األساسية في التحليل الصوتي ( :1الفصل

allophonesالصوتيات و.1

: أزواج الدنيا ، وتوزيع متكاملة وتباين مجاناallophonesاختبارات لتحديد الصوتيات و.2

أسابيع)3أهم المالمح المميزة ( :2الفصل

Sonorant ، المقطعية وغير مقطعي ، وعدم وconsonantal وغير Consonantalميزات فئة رئيسية : .1sonorant-


http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/&usg=ALkJrhiZ1qZ8jPs_QJw6T11LpbRQvha9ng

ميزات تجويف : شفوي وغير الشفوي ،.2

معالم الجثة اللسان : عالية وغير عالية ، قليلة وغير منخفضة ، والعودة وعدم العودة.3

ميزات الحنجرة : جهوري وبال صوت.4

،continuant وغير Continuantميزات الطريقة : .5

الوحشية وغير الوحشية ، واألنف وغير األنفية ،

عروضي الميزات.6

طويلة وقصيرة

أسابيع)2والقواعد ( ف honologicalالعمليات :3الفصل

ما هو التمثل؟.1

اتجاه االستيعاب.1

االستيعاب كلمة عبر الحدود.2

صوت االستيعاب.2

كيفية صياغة المادة الصوتية؟.3

أسابيع)5الجزء الثاني : المورفولوجيا (

أسبوع)1المفاهيم األساسية في التحليل الصرفي ( :1الفصل

Lexemes، وأشكال الكلمة نقرأ ، وmorphemes allomorphs

أسابيع)morphemes) 2أنواع :2الفصل

الجذور والالحقات والسيقان والقواعدInflectional والتوابع morphemes

أسابيع)2عمليات تشكيل الكلمة اإلنجليزية ( :3الفصل

العمليات الرئيسيةعمليات بسيطة


الدرجات

وسوف تكون متدرجة لك وفقا للجدول التالي :

) نقطة13 (أو 12علم األصوات : .1

) نقاط7 (أو 8التشكل : .2

شعار

"عندما يتم تغذية لك حتى مع نظام (لغة) ،

وهو ما يعني أن يتم تغذية لك حتى مع () الحياة (امتحان) "

المحاضر

مقدمة

وهذا هو ، يجب علينا محاولة لتعريف الطالب على بعض القواعد في هذه الحال ، يتعين علينا التعامل مع اللغة على أنها مجموعة من القواعد النحوية.

في هذه في الواقع ، هناك وحدات أصغر في اللغة. كثير من الناس يعتقدون خطأ ان الكلمات هي أصغر وحدة في اللغة. التي تحد من استخدام اللغة.

في الجزء األول ، سوف نقوم بالتحقيق ) فضال عن وحدات أصغر الصوت (أي الفونيمات).morphemesالحال ، سوف نرى أصغر وحدة ذات معنى (أي

في الجزء الثاني ، ومع ذلك ، فإننا في كلمة أخرى ، وسوف نرى كيف ، وفقا للقواعد التي واالصوات والكلمات النموذج. في كلمة كتركيب من األصوات.

.morphemesسوف نرى كيف تتكون الكلمات من أنواع مختلفة من

ويفترض أن تكون مستويات أمرت في التسلسل ويمكن دراسة اللغة كبنية على مختلف المستويات. الشكل التالي يوضح هذا التسلسل الهرمي. الهرمي.

: يتناول المعنى المستوى الداللي


: يتناول الهيكل والجملة النحوية المستوى

: يتعامل مع هيكل كلمة المستوى الصرفي

يتعامل مع أنظمة الصوت علم األصوات (أو الصوتيات) :

وينظر الى هذه المهمة لوصف الجوانب النحوية للغة والعمل بها ، في مراحل منفصلة ، ألول مرة في هذه الحال ، ومع ذلك ، يتعين علينا النطق ، ثم كلمة الهيكل ، ثم الجملة هيكل وأخيرا معنى الكالم.

أن نكون فقط المعنية مع مستويين األول ؛ أي علم األصوات والتشكل.

ت األصوا الجزء األول : علم

ما هو علم األصوات؟

، الذي الصوتيات هو فرع من فروع اللغويات ، وترتبط ارتباطا وثيقا علم األصوات

في تاريخ هذا يدرس األدب التنظيم واستخدام أصوات الكالم في اللغات الطبيعية. العلم يصل إلى العصور القديمة ، حيث أن النحاة اليونانية والرومانية كما حققت النظم

كانت قد وضعت األسس الستفسارات الصوتية الحديثة في القرن الصوتية لغاتهم.

الصوتيات يتعامل التاسع عشر من قبل اللغويين مثل فرديناند دي سوسير وهنري حلو. ، إال أنه في اتصال مع التخصصات األخرى مثل مورفولوجيا اللغة مع أصغر قطعا من

قد تغير معنى الكلمات والنطق بها ، وبعد كثيرmorphemesلغوية ، وذلك ألن مضيفا

، وكذلك يمكن اعتمادا على بناء الجملة ويرتبط أيضا مع الصوتيات من األحيان أنماط. وظيفة الكلمة في الجملة يمكن نطقها بشكل مختلف مع أؤكد على الجمل الفعلية ،

بسبب دالالت وتحولت مع التجويد تغيرت.وبالمثل ، ويرتبط هذا الفرع من علم اللغة مع

بينما الصوتيات دراسات إنتاج وإدراك األصوات الكالم ، وعلم األصوات القيود التجويد.

انها تحقيقات أكثر اهتماما في المجرد ، وهذا هو الجوانب النفسية لهذه األصوات.ويصف أنماط وأنواع األصوات السليمة التي الناطقين اكتساب حدسي.

ومع ذلك ، ألن مصطلح "خطاب األصوات" يبدو أن تستخدم أساسا في علم األصوات ،

phonologists.ألف صوت هو أصغر وحدة الصوت في اللغة الحديث عن الفونيمات

ومع ذلك فهي لم تكن متطابقة مع الصوت نفسه ، بل هو تمثيل النظرية من البشرية.

ميزة واحدة هامة من الفونيمات دون اإلشارة إلى موقفها في مقطع أو كلمة أو جملة.

ومن جانب المتناقضة الفونيمات تحديد هويتهم.contrastivenessهي التي تمكن من اثنين ، على سبيل المثال / ك / و / ز / والتي يمكن مشاهدتها أنها تختلف في سمة

لذا يجب علينا تكريس فصل كامل ، في هذه الحال ، واحدة على األقل ، معربا عن مثل.


http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/semantics.htm&usg=ALkJrhiXWpPRw5sSmfKhyDhJrLAtiwuCow

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/syntax.htm&usg=ALkJrhib8ZQ_XNf_H1oIc88Qa_4tEzCLMQ

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/language.htm&usg=ALkJrhiGm9lm7nZE0TvfXl_bvQqFc6gHYQ

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/phonetics.htm&usg=ALkJrhgmLFHP6rPhRrtxnGXwbNvBF9Aibg

جميع اللغات لديها مجموعة من الصوتيات المميزة من هذا بالنسبة لسمات مميزة.

الفونيمات ، ولكن30إلى حد كبير ، يبدو أن غالبية اللغات التي كانت حوالي القبيل.

اللغة اإلنجليزية ، كما تقريبا.150 أو ما يصل الى 11هناك بعض الذين قليلة مثل الفونيمات ، اعتمادا على مجموعة متنوعة من اللغة اإلنجليزية في43يقال ، وحوالي

على الرغم من أن عددا من الفونيمات قد تختلف من لغة إلى لغة ، ويضع السؤال.

باللغة دائما محدودة ، ولكن تمكن المتكلمين إلنشاء عدد غير محدود من الكلمات. في كلمة له في أربعة "آفة"كلمة تتكون من أربعة الصوتيات ، و "خطوة" االنكليزية

علم نفس الفونيمات ، ولكن نظرا ألنها في ترتيب مختلف المعنى ليس هو نفسه.األصوات أيضا بالتحقيق في تسلسل ممكن من الفونيمات في لغة معينة.

لذلك ، فإنه بشكل غير مباشر عمليات دراسات تشكيل الكلمة ، ألنها مقيدة للغاية وفقا ، وهذا هو المسموح به المنظمة (أو تسلسل) منphonotacticsلقواعد

وبالتالي فإنه من غير المحتمل جدا أن أي كلمة إنجليزية ينبغي أن تبدأ أو الفونيمات. نانوغرام؟ و/ الصوت / في حين ان هذا الصوت هو أمر شائع جدا في الوسط ، أو في

ال تسمحphonotacticومع ذلك ، فإن حقيقة أن القيود نهاية الكلمات اإلنجليزية. لبعض األصوات في اللغة التي تحدث في بعض المواقف ، والذي يحصر كلمة يسك

وعمليات تكوين كلمة من اللغة ، وهذا ال يعني أن مثل هذه الكلمات ال تظهر في تلك

أحيانا الكلمات المستعارة قد كسر القواعد الصوتية للغة معينة ، ويكون ال يزال اللغة. / ن / الصوت في اللغة ʃلل قيد االستخدام ، كما هو الحال مع الموقف المبدئي

إلى حد كبير ، وبدأت الكلمات مع الصوت مثل هذا الموقف المبدئي في اإلنجليزية. الظهور إال مؤخرا في اللغة اإلنجليزية وجميعهم من الكلمات المستعارة : المسكر ،

.schmoشنيتزل ،

تحليل تسلسل ممكن من الفونيمات ال يركز فقط على الفونيمات أنفسهم ، ولكن أيضا على المقاطع ومجموعات ، على الرغم من أن المسار الحالي ال يكرس أي قسم

ولذلك ، نحن ذاهبون لفرشاة الذاكرة الخاصة بك مع ما كنت قد شهدت خالل اللمقاطع.

يجب أن تتألف من مقطع وحرف علة ، ولكن عادة هناك أيضا .2من النطق الثانية السنة المقطع ). كثيرا ما توصف بأنها تتألفV) قبل حرف العلة (Cساكن ( أ ، ينقسم كثير من وقافية ، وهو ساكن ، أو الساكنة قليلة ، البداية من اللفظي

في خاتمة اللغة اإلنجليزية (أي الساكنة التالية). وخاتمة (حرف علة) ، نواة األحيان إلى ال تملك دائما تحدث في مقطع لفظي ، مثل على سبيل المثال في عبارة : انه (السيرة

كتل ، أو مجموعات تتفق هي ببساطة اثنين أو أكثر من ).CVالذاتية) ، أو أيضا ( أخرى ، هيphonotacticالحروف الساكنة واحدا تلو اآلخر.مجموعات ، مثل قواعد

سمة مميزة للغة معينة ، على سبيل المثال / ش / العنقودية في اللغة اإلنجليزية يمكن أن يكون بداية : الشارع ، أو خاتمة أ : أعلى ، ومع ذلك فإنه من المستحيل في اللغة

اليابانية.

وبصرف النظر عن تحليل الفونيمات من كتل واللغة والمقاطع ، علم األصوات كما

العمليات األكثر شيوعا يتعامل مع العمليات التي تحدث في الخطاب اليومي ، بطالقة. التي يمكن مالحظتها في كلمة عارضة واالستيعاب وترخيم ، رغم ذلك ، في سياق

االستيعاب هو عملية الحاضر ، ونحن ذاهبون الى التركيز فقط على عملية االستيعاب.

ترخيم هو عملية فيها فيها بعض األصوات نسخ خصائص أخرى سليمة ، المتاخمة لها. بعض األصوات ، أو حتى يتم حذف المقاطع وليس وضوحا على اإلطالق ، رغم أنه في


ترخيم يحدث ليس بسبب الكسل من المتكلمين ، ولكن حاالت أخرى عادة ما تلفظ.

ولكن دعونا نبدأ من االمم المتحدة تبدأ اآلن ، فإن المفاهيم لجعل النطق أكثر بطالقة.األساسية للتحليل الصوتي.

الفصل األول

المفاهيم األساسية

التحليل الصوتى

و .1 Allophonesالصوتيات

فمن الضروري النظر في األصوات من نقطة (أي الفرق في المعنى) وظيفية للعرض ، من األصوات العائالت وهذا ليس فقط لنقلهم كما يبدو المادية الفردية ، ولكن بدال من

من األسرة صوت أعضاء وتسمى هذه العائلة من األصوات التي تعتبر واحدة بلغة معينة. (أوallophones صوت نفسه ، أي اإلعدام مختلفة من هذا الصوت في الواقع تسمى

الفونيمات (والتي هي مكتوبة بين مائلة ، على سبيل المثال من ذلك صوت. المتغيرات) (والتي هي مكتوبة بين قوسين ، على سبيل المثال [ط[) وهماallophones/ / ط) و

وقد تم بالفعل من أكثر المفاهيم األساسية والمهمة في علم األصوات والصوتيات.

لذلك ، يمكنك كنت قدمت لهم في العام الماضي في دورة مقدمة في اللغويات.الرجوع إلى هذه الدورة لمزيد من التفاصيل حول هذين المفهومين.

التيallophonesعلى سبيل المثال ، الفونيمات اثنين / ر / و / ك / ، كل منها لديها مجموعة من ستالحظ أن في السيارة ، انطق الكلمات التالية ببطء : مفاتيح السيارة. تختلف قليال عن بعضها البعض.

والجزء الخلفي من اللسان يمس جزء من اللهاة بالقرب من اللهاة ، في الجزء الخلفي للغاية من سقف فمك ، ولكن في مفاتيح هذا هو الجزء األمامي من أكثر اللهاة بالقرب من الصعب الحنك أن يجعل

ال يمكن ولكنها ليست مختلفة وظيفيا. اثنين من 'ك' تختلف جسديا.allophonesو االتصال مع اللسان. وبعبارة أخرى ، إذا كان لنا أن تنطق السيارة مع أن البديل أكثر وضوحا استخدامها لتمييز معنى الكلمة.

لذلك انجازاتهم اثنين من 'ك' هي من في واجهته ومفاتيح ، ونحن نفهم أنه ال تزال هي سيارة.allophonesيعتمد نفس / ك / صوت والذي يستخدم واحد على المناسبة في ضوء على ما يبدو أن

ويمكن رؤية وظيفة (وظيفة أو غير) في بعض االختبارات الصوتية مثل اختبار الحد يحدث المجاورة.األدنى من الزوج ، واختبار توزيع متكاملة واختبار التباين الحرة.

الفونيمات .2 لتحديد اختبارات

في هذا القسم يجب علينا الخطوط العريضة لإلجراءات األساسية التي تستخدم لتحديداللغويين الفونيمات أو وظيفيا شرائح كبيرة من اللغة.

اختبار الحد األدنى من الزوج.1

عندما كلمتين متطابقة في جميع النواحي ، باستثناء جزء واحد (أو الصوت) ، ويشار إلى أن الحد األدنى على سبيل المثال ، تؤدي قراءة ، وبطاقة حرس والفئران والخفافيش ، لطيفة ، وحصيرة كما أزواج.

هذه األمثلة من الحد األدنى من الزوج أن يظهر اختبار األصوات / ص / و / ل / ، / أزواج الحد األدنى. ك / و / ز / ، / م / و / ن / و ب / / و / م / تصنف الفونيمات منفصلة ألنها هي المسؤولة عن الفرق في

وبعبارة أخرى ، هي الحد األدنى من أزواج أزواج من الكلمات التي نطق يختلف المعنى في الزوج أدنى.


وهي كثيرا ما القملواألرز. ، أو الخراف والسفينة في جزء واحد فقط (حرف علة أو صوت ساكن) ، مثل نظريا ، هو وجود الحد األدنى الذي يتيح أزواج اللغويين تستخدم في االستماع اختبارات وتدريبات النطق.

لبناء المخزون صوت للغة أو لهجة ، على الرغم من أن العملية ال تخلو من الصعوبات.

اختبار توزيع التكميلية.2

عندما األصوات هما في توزيع متكاملة ، ومنعهم من الوقوع في بيئات مماثلة : هناك التقسيم الصارم للعمالة بحيث يظهر صوت واحد في سياقات معينة ، واآلخر في بعض

(أو البديل) من صوت / ك /allophoneوبالتالي ، فإن العودة للغاية [ك[ منها مختلفة. ) يحدث قبل أحرف العلةallophonesأن رأينا أعاله (في المقطع من الصوتيات و

ولكن في حال قبل الجبهةمفاتيح الظهر واجهته [ك[ ، و. حروف العلة فيallophones twoتحدث في البيئة ذاتها تماما ، يمكننا أن نقول بعد ذلك أن هذه هي

حالة االختالف الحرة.

اختبار التباين الحرة.3

على سبيل المثال ، قد ال تتفق نهائي كأس المتغيرات الحرة. أحيانا قد صوت أيضا سيصدر من قبل بعض المتحدثين حتى ال يكون هناك أي صوت مسموع في نهاية هذه

[ك و [ʰ ʌp ʰ[ك في هذه الحالة ، هو نفس الكلمة وضوحا بطريقتين مختلفتين : الكلمة.

ʰ ʌp>] التشكيل مع "مشيرا الى" عدم االفراج مسموعة "أو" السليمة التي تقف "في "< ،

قد يكون سبب الفرق التي عادة اللهجة أو ، أي ال صوت يسمع في الواقع.IPAرموز

كثيرا ما االختالف الحرة. وتسمى هذه الظاهرة الشخصية ، بدال من أي قاعدة التوزيع.

على سبيل المثال ، تنطق معظم وجدت االختالف الحرة في الخالفات اإلقليمية.

[ في حين أن معظم الشعب البريطاني يقول [ː ðɚ[ط كما "سواء" األميركيين كلمة

aɪðə.] قد تحدد الفروق الفردية أيضا استخدام ]dɪrɛkʃn] ]darɛkʃn] للكلمة. 'االتجاه'ل أو

يمثل تقف وقف [ف] ، [ف] وفيما يلي أمثلة أخرى ، والنظر في الكلمات التالية التي تحتوي على [ف] و الحرف الشفهي ال صوت لهم :

ع] قفزة [شفة] قفزة [لى

ف] الصابون [سوب] الصابون [حتى

ف] ] بقوات [تروtrupالقوات [

ط] ف ] ---- * [هاىhæpiسعيد [

الفصل الثاني

كبير

مالمح مميزة


مقدمة

على سبيل المثال ، توصف الساكنة وتنقسم أصوات الكالم تصل إلى فئات وفقا لعدد من الخصائص. وفقا ألماكن إقامتهم وآداب التعبير ، وموصوفة أحرف العلة ، وليس لها مكان وال طريقة التعبير ، وفقا

التي جاكوبسون السمات المميزة وقد تم تطوير الفكرة ألول مرة من .backness أو frontnessل كوسيلة للعمل من مجموعة من التناقضات أو المعارضة الصوتية1940s) في 1982-1896رومان (

منذ ذلك الحين وقد اقترحت عدة إصدارات ، حتى إذا كنت على اللتقاط جوانب معينة من أصوات اللغة. علم األصوات قراءة الكتب التي نشرت في أوقات مختلفة ، ونتوقع العثور على مجموعات مختلفة من

الميزات.

ميزة [ ] ، [األنف] و [عبر].consonantal [ ،]sonorantبعض الفروق الرئيسية تشمل [consonantal+] يمكن التمييز بين الحروف الساكنة والمتحركة ، لذلك كل الحروف الساكنة هي [ consonantal -] وجميع حروف العلة [consonantal.[ ]sonorantيميز بين ما [

(جميع الحروف الساكنة sonorantsو )affricates(يتوقف ، واإلحتكاكيون obstruents نسميه [األنف] و [عبر] ].sonorant وغيرها [+ obstruents [- sonorant]والمتحركة األخرى) ، مع كونها

) األصوات واألصوات وأعرب التوالي.nasalizedبالطبع تمييز األنف (بما في ذلك

ألننا ال نستطيع تصنيفها ضمن فئتين : واحدة مع هذه الميزة واألخرى من الميزات ثنائي وتعرف هذه obstruentsميزات الثنائية وقيمتين أو مواصفات الرمز بواسطة "+" و "--" يتم وضع عالمة دونه.

ال صوت لهم [جهوري].obstruentsاعرب ذلك [+ اعرب] ، ويتم وضع عالمة

في علم األصوات المعاصر ، وتستخدم حوالي عشرين ميزات مثل ألصوات الكالم مجموعة من زوايا ولكن في المسار الحالي نحن ذاهبون الى التركيز على الميزات الرئيسية التي تميز األصوات مختلفة.

اإلنجليزية.

السبب هو أنه من الضروري العمل مع الميزات؟

ألغراض صنع التحليالت الصوتية واستخالص القواعد التي تحكم اللغة ، فمن الضروري أن ننظر إلى أبعد من صوت والتركيز على المكونات األساسية تسمى تلك الميزات

، Katamba 1وفقا لفرانسيس ، والتيهي مصنوعة من الفونيمات. الصوتية المميزة عن اعتقاده بأن صوت هو ذرية ، لبنة أساسية في علم األصوات ال يمكن الدفاع عنه

أكثر لعدد من األسباب ، لكن أهمها هو أن يتحدد بشكل كبير على سلوك من الفونيماتالصوتية التي الميزات الصوتية وهي مصنوعة من.

ميزات فئة رئيسية.1

) ، والتي كان لديك نسخة منه في المصنف الخاص بك معIPAإذا نظرنا إلى األبجدية الصوتية الدولية (وتشكل هذه الفئة الميزات الرئيسية. أبرز األصوات اإلنجليزية ، يمكننا معرفة الست الكبرى

a.Consonantal مباراة غير consonantal

Consonantal +] األصوات (أو consonantalيتم إنتاجها مع تضيق (أو قوية) جذرية (عرقلة) من ([ ]) مصنوعة من دون عرقلة من هذاconsonantal تيار الهواء ، (أو [-- consonantalاألصوات غير

القبيل.

(أو [+consonantal ، والسوائل وnasals (ال يجوز تفسير هذا المصطلح أدناه) ، obstruentsجميع consonantal.([

أحرف العلة وينساب (أو شبه حروف العلة ، هم [ث] ، [ي] و [ح] باللغة اإلنجليزية [؟]) غير قابلة للconsonantal --] أو) consonantal([


b.[+ / -- مقطعي] مقطعي مباراة غير مقطعي

األصوات هي أصوات مقطعي التي تعمل بوصفها نواة المقطع ؛ غير مقطعي األصوات تحدث في زجاجة حروف العلة هي مقطعي وحتى الحروف الساكنة مقطعي مثل [ل] في هوامش مقطع لفظي.

القاع. [م] في والقطن أو [ن] في األنف وشمعة

c.Sonorant مباراة غير sonorant [+ / -- sonorant]

هنا نتحدث عن سمة من سمات المصوتية ، يعني أن التعبير عن عفوية بعد إنتاج بعض األصوات أو حتى أصواتsonorant] األصوات أو األصوات غير sonorant] ، بينما [-- sonorantالمسمى [+ obstruent.يملك التصرف تجويف صخبا الذي يثبط (يمنع) معربا عن العفوية

ال صوت لهم.sonorants obstruentsعادة ما يتم عبر جميع األصوات و

sonorant ، والسوائل وnasalsأحرف العلة ،

affricates obstruentتوقف اإلحتكاكيون ، ويتم

تجويف الميزات.2

تحديد المكان الذي كانوا في التعديالت المسالك هذه الميزات تشير إلى مكان للمفصل.

على سبيل المثال ، في إنتاج بعض الصوتية للتيار الهواء تتم في إنتاج صوت معين. labialsاألصوات ، وعرقلة الرئيسي للتيار الهواء ال يعود من الحافة السنخية مثل في

[م[ و [ب[ ، وتسمى هذه األصوات األمامية أو [األمامي +[ ، ولكن نحن الذهاب الى.labialityاختيار واحد فقط من بين الميزة ميزة تجويف للدراسة ، وميزة

[+ / -- شفري] شفوي مباراة غير شفوي

في حالة وجود تضيق (أو تضييق) المصنوعة من الشفاه ، والصوت هو إنتاج شفوي ، إذا لم يكن هناك ومن الجدير بالذكر ، مع ذلك ، أن هناك درجة كبيرة من التداخل مثل تضيق ، والصوت هو غير شفوي.

نأخذ المثال من الصوت [ث] ، بين مجموعة من األصوات كما وصفت تقريب تلك األصوات الشفوية.على سبيل المثال ، فإنه على حد سواء [+ شفري] و [+ الجولة].

مالمح الجسم اللسان.3

القاعدة تقول انه فمن وفقا لموقف الهيئة من اللسان أن نعلق بعض ميزة األصوات. عندما جسد اللسان في موقف محايد ، ويقال إن الحروف المتحركة المنتجة لتكون

حروف العلة منتصف الجبهة.ولكن عندما يكون ارتفاع الصوت (سواء كان حرف علة أو تتفق أ) أن يكون [+ عالية[ ، وعندما سيكون أقل [+ منخفضة[ ، وعندما يعود أكثر

سيكون [+ عودة[.

[+ / -- عالية] ارتفاع مباراة غير عالية

تصنع أصوات عالية ، كما رأينا أعاله ، مع رفع اللسان من موقف محايد في حين يتم إجراء غير أصوات أصوات عالية وتشمل مثل حروف العلة [إيو] ، واالنزالقات عالية دون إثارة مثل هذه الهيئة من اللسان.

]WJ [ ،alveoحنكي ، الساكنة ، و - palatalized.كل األصوات األخرى غير قابلة حنكي حلقي لالرتفاع.

[+ / -- منخفض[ انخفاض مقابل انخفاض غير


عندما يتم إنتاج صوت معين مع اللسان الكذب عند مستوى أقل من تلك التي تحتلها فيحين موقف محايد ، أن الصوت هو [+ منخفضة[ ، وإال فإنه هو [-- منخفض[.

[+ / -- عودة[ مباراة العودة غير مرة

عندما يتم سحب جثة اللسان (انسحبت) من موقف محايد ، واألصوات التي تنتج في هذه الحالة أصوات المنتجة مع الجسم اللسان إما في موقف محايد أو دفعت إلى األمام غير قابلة تعود.

]. ɛ وأحرف العلة مثل الجبهة [أي [ ،ɔ UO[ هذه الميزة يميز بين أحرف العلة الظهر مثل للعودة.

، فضال عنpharyngeals labials ، dentals ، وحين عدنا velars ، uvularsمن الحروف الساكنة ، palatals.مزماري غير قابلة للعودة

ميزات الحنجرة.4

[+ / -- صوت[ وأعرب مقابل ال صوت لهم

عندما يكون هناك اهتزاز الحبال الصوتية على فترات منتظمة ، وأعرب عن إنتاج الصوت في هذه الحالة ، يتم إجراء أصوات لمن ال صوت لهم من دون اهتزاز هذه

واعرب عن حروف العلة والحروف الساكنة واعرب أو ال صوت لهم. الدورية.

الطريقة الميزات.5

مالمح بطريقة تميز الطريقة التي عرقلت تيار الهواء في إنتاج الساكنة.

Continuant مباراة غير continuant ]+ / -- continuant]

Continuants، هي األصوات التي تنتجها إعاقة ، ولكن ال تمنع تماما ، وتدفق الهواء تماما من خالل منع الهواء من خالل مركز المسالك الصوتية.continuantsوجعلها غير

Affricates ، الخطوط الفرعية ، nasals وغير قابلة للتوقف عن ، continuants

continuantsكل األصوات األخرى

[+ / -- الوحشي[ مباراة جانبية غير الوحشي

ويتم إنتاج األصوات الوحشي مع تدفق الهواء من خالل مركز للفم ولكن منعت هروب

[ل[ هو السائل الوحيد الوحشي في اللغة أكثر من واحد أو كال الجانبين من اللسان. اإلنجليزية (تستخدم تقليديا السائل المصطلح لإلشارة إلى أصوات مماثلة لألنجليزي [ل[

و [ص[.

[+ / -- األنف[ األنف مباراة غير األنف (عن طريق الفم)

وينتج صوت األنف عندما يخفض الشراع للسماح للهواء للهروب من خالل تجويف األنف.

[ (هذه هي توقف إنتاجها بسبب N ؛mnnbspاألصوات األنفية تشمل توقف األنف [ االنسداد الكامل مع من الهواء في المكان حيث يلتقي مفاصل ، أي في الشفاه أو

nasalized[ على التوالي) ، فضال عن ن الحرف السنخي أو الشراع ل [م[ ن [، [ و [

كل األصوات األخرى عن طريق الفم أو [-- األنف[. الساكنة ، وحروف العلة االنزالقات.

عروضي الميزات.6


http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_nasal&usg=ALkJrhhtiPTHaSHVxBWeB_W6gTIZtBQlYQ

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_nasal&usg=ALkJrhhtiPTHaSHVxBWeB_W6gTIZtBQlYQ

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel&usg=ALkJrhg5vVlJttwLatUgkoysodsydSMV2Q

سوف نقوم في هذه ميزات عروضي لها عالقة مع مدة إنتاج الصوت ، لهجتها واإلجهاد.الدورة تغطي فقط تلك األصوات الطويلة والقصيرة ؛

[+ / -- طويلة[ مباراة طويلة قصيرة

طول باعتباره الميزة النسبية وبشكل واضح يخضع لبعض التقدم من أقصر الطول

ولكن من اجل البساطة سيكون لدينا حساب ثنائي منه ، إما أن يكون [+ الصوت.

تجدر اإلشارة هنا إلى أن طول هي ميزة وظيفية مميزة في الطويل[ أو [-- طويلة[.

فلنأخذ على سبيل المثال اللغة العربية الفصحى ، أي أنه يؤدي إلى تغيير في المعنى.في البندين التاليين التي تعرفها.

Kataba

Kaataba

يمكنك بوضوح تالحظ الفرق في المعنى الذي قدمه إطالة حرف العلة [أ[ من الفعلالطبيعي الحد انعكاسية.

(كما في السعي / [ط[ و [ɪ[ في اللغة اإلنجليزية ، على سبيل المثال ، التناقض بين

ك /) بدال من اعتبار واحد بين صوت واحد مقابل متوترة ɪ سيك / والمرضى / ق

ك [-- طويلة[ ، [ɪ[ ولكن ال يزال سننظر في هذه الدورة ، التي يبدو وكأنه التراخي.ك [+ طويل[. [ط[ ويبدو وكأنه

على سبيل المثال :

نظرة على مالمح األصوات اإلنكليزية التالية.

مثال :1الجدول

ع ب ر ش

Consonantal -- + + +

Continuant + -- -- --

+ + -- + شفوي

-- + -- + وأعرب

أدناه يمكنك العثور على بعض سمة مميزة رأينا أعاله بطلب للحصول على الفونيمات تتفق اإلنجليزية.


ميزة مميزة مصفوفة لتتوافق الفونيمات اإلنجليزية :2الجدول

ʧʤيصلثNنمحʃʒضقθðتوزكدربع

consonantal++++++++++++++++++--++--++

approximant------------------------------------++++----

sonorant------------------------------+++++++----

continuant------------+++++++++------+++++ / --+ / --

------------+++------------------------------أنفي

--------+--------------------------------------جانبي

+--+++++++--+--+--+--+--+--+--+--وأعرب

)141 : 1999(المصدر : رادفورد ، وآخرون

الفصل الثالث

العمليات الصوتية

والقواعد

allophony ويطلق على ظاهرة االختالف في نطق الفونيمات في المواقف المختلفة

allophonic إذا أردنا التدقيق في تغيير الصوتية تشارك في االختالف. أوallophonic

في هذا الفصل ، االختالف ، يمكن أن نجد عددا من العمليات العامة يأخذ هذا التغيير. allophonicونحن نذهب لرؤية عملية شيوعا الصوتية المسؤولة عن عدد من التغييرات

مثل هذه ، وعملية االستيعاب.

ما هو االستيعاب؟.1

االستيعاب يحدث عندما يكون هناك تعديل للصوت من أجل جعله أكثر مماثلة لبعض

المتحدثين بلغة اللجوء إلى االندماج في النطق بها بهدف السليمة المجاورة (ق). الحصول على التحوالت سالسة ، وأكثر جهد وأكثر اقتصادا من صوت واحد إلى

يحاولون عادة للحفاظ على الطاقة باستخدام أي مزيد من الجهد أكثر مما هو آخر.ضروري إلنتاج الكالم.

النظر في النطق في كل حالة. دعونا نبدأ من خالل النظر في مجموعات من الكلمات التالية.

1المثال


] يمكن [خون]kæpقبعة [ أ

]tæn] تان [tæpاضغط [ ب.

2المثال

]ɛ ̪ θ ] العاشرة [ر نɛ NT خيمة [ر أ

]ɪ ̪ θ ] التاسعة [ن غɪ NTI [غninety ب.

3المثال

ناغورني كاراباخ] ɪ نانوثانية] غرق [ق ɪ منذ [ق أ

ناغورني كاراباخ] ɪ نانوثانية] المنك [م ɪ اللحم المفروم [ق ب.

1A 1 في كال األمثلة وb.هو " ، الكلمات تختلف في اثنين من األصواتnasalizedحرف العلة في " " ل/ األنف / نdentalized ، "2في المثال الكلمة الثانية من كل زوج بسبب نفوذ ساكن األنف التالية.

] قبل وقف حلقيN ، واألنف السنخية / ن / يصبح األنف حلقي [3في المثال قبل احتكاكي األسنان. ، وهي االستيعابvelarization ، وكلها حاالت dentalization ، التأنف في هذه الحالة ، [ك].

العملية التي صوت واحد يأخذ على بعض أو كل خصائص الصوت المجاورة ، كما رأينا أعاله.

اتجاه االستيعاب .1.1

وبالمثل ، هناك احتماالن االستيعاب : إذا كان الصوت التالية هي التي تؤثر على صوت السابقة ، ونحن ؛ هو معروف عملية التحدث ، الذي صوت السابق هو التأثير على الصوت االستيعاب رجعية نسميها حاالت من "االستيعاب رجعية".3-1بكل ما نملك من األمثلة في واالستيعاب التدريجي. التالية ،

االستيعاب كلمة عبر الحدود .1.2

يمكن أن يحدث عبر الحدود االستيعاب مقطع أو كلمة ، كما هو مبين من خالل ما يلي :

4مثال

] كعكةNمقالة [ أ

أحد [ن] النظارات ب.

5المثال

] ابقائهمNيمكنك [ أ

] اذهب اآلنNيستطيع [ ب.

صوت االستيعاب.2

، التأنف والنطق ، ويمكن أن يكون االستيعاب من حيثvelarization dentalizationباإلضافة إلى ، االنكليزيةaffricatesعلى سبيل المثال ، أظهرت الدراسات استيعاب اإلحتكاكيون الصوت كذلك.

يتم سرد خمسة أزواج اإلحتكاكيون والتي تتأثر بشدة من قبل معربا عن معربا من الصوت التالية. في أدناه.affricatesاالنكليزية و


ʃ ، ʒ ، ʧ ، ʤ ، د ، ق ، ض ،θ : واو ، والخامس ، affricatesقائمة اإلحتكاكيون االنكليزية و

باللغة اإلنكليزية في التعبير :affricates أدناه تبين كيف يمكن استيعابهم واإلحتكاكيون 6األمثلة في

6المثال

ش] ɪ FP ɑ ː ش]< [كرة القدم ɪ VP ɑ ː الخمس الماضية [كرة القدم أ

]ə قدم ʌ [ل ]<ʌ VT ə أحب أن [ل ب.

]hæzt ə>[ ]hæst əأن [ (ج)

ن] ɪʃəʊ ملحوظة SK ə əن]< [ ɪʃəʊ ملحوظةə ə ZK[ كما يمكن أن يظهر د.

ل] LU ː SFA ɪ VN ɪل]< [ LU ː zfa ɪ VN ɪال شيء يفقد خمس [ ه.

العمود األول من الرموز ويبين الطريقة التي يتم بها هذه العبارات وضوحا في خطاب بطيئا أو حذرا في التحقيقات تكشف أن حين أن العمود الثاني يبين كيف أنها هي وضوحا في التعبير ، وطبيعية متصلة.

، وهي العملية التي عبرت األصوات تصبح بال صوت ، في مثل هذه devoicing أصوات أخرىالسياقات ال يحدث مع األصوات األخرى ، مثل توقف وحروف العلة.

تخضع لعملية التغيير الهيكلي قطعة على أثرت التي العمليات الصوتية هذه التغييرات تظهر في في كل عملية تغيير مشروط أو بشرارة الصوت التالية ، أو في حالة السياقات. معينة أو بيئات في

وبالتالي ، يمكن القول أن أية عملية الصوتية يجب أن يكون لها ثالثة الذوبان التدريجي ، صوت السابقة. جوانب : (أ) مجموعة من األصوات على الخضوع لعملية ، (ب) مجموعة من األصوات التي تنتجها هذه

العملية ؛ (ج) مجموعة من الحاالت التي يكون فيها العملية.

يمكننا تمثيل هذه العملية عن طريق وسائل سهم :

) / الخامس / [و]4(

/ ولكن أيضا الإلحتكاكيون أخرى ،Vوقد أظهرت البيانات المتوفرة لدينا أن هذا ال ينطبق فقط على / لذا ، يمكننا أن نجعل قاعدة أعم تشير إلى أن تتحول إلى اإلحتكاكيون اعرب اإلحتكاكيون ال مثل / ض /.

صوت لهم من قبل شرائح ال صوت لهم :

) وأعرب / بال صوت احتكاكي _____ ال صوت لهم5(

القاعدة الصوتية. هذه هي

كيفية صياغة قاعدة رسمية :.3

، في مزيد من التفاصيل ، وكيف تصاغ القواعد في ونرى اآلن دعونا نلقي نظرة على البادئة االنكليزية الصوتية ، بدءا من المراقبة لصياغة القاعدة (األسلوب العلمي شرحت العام الماضي اذا كنت تستطيع

أن نتذكر).

]ɪ [م ]ɪ [ن ]ɪ N[


ط [م] قوية ط [ن] المباشر ط [ن] قاطعة

ط [م] جزئية ط [ن] تعتمد ط [ن] ترو

ط [م] ممكن ط [ن] التسامح ط [ن] الصحيح

ط [م] عملية ط [ن] سوفيرابلي ط [ن] كاملة

ط [م] ناضجة ط [ن] كافية ط [ن] مريحة

ط [م] التوازن ط [ن] االمتنان

السؤال : ماذا تالحظ؟

لديه نفس المكان للمفصل كما تتفق التالية : -- في الجواب : إننا نالحظ أن األنف في البادئة

[م] قبل [ع ، ب ، م] [+ شفري]

[ن] قبل [ر ، د ، ق] [+ السنخية]

]N[حلقي +] [ك ، ز] قبل [

في مكان مفصل لتتفق على التالي. تستوعب نقول : األنف

النظر في البيانات التالية :

ط [ن] من المستحسن

ط [ن] األرواح

ط تنسيق [ن]

ط [ن] مؤهلة

ن] يحدث في معظم البيئات : هذا هو ، قبل أحرف العلة ، ر ، د و س. ɪ[ بناء على هذه المعطيات ،

ن /. ɪ لذا ، نريد أن نقول إن النموذج األساسي لاللبادئة /

القاعدة :

]ɪ [ع ، ب ، م] م] / ___ الساكنة الحرف الشفهي

/ ɪ / ن ]ɪ N[ك ، ز] الساكنة حلقي ___ / [

]ɪ ن] في مكان آخر [ر ، د ، ق] ، وحروف العلة

وهناك قاعدة رسمية :

كما رأيتم في الشكل أعاله ، يجب على قاعدة رسمية تتكون من التالي :


a.والتي تنص على الصوت أو األصوات المتضررة من المادة ، في الحالة المذكورة أعاله والمدخالت ،

ن / ؛ ɪ هو /

b.(ق) والتي تعني أن يتحقق على النحو 'أو' يصبح '؛ السهم ،

c.من القاعدة ؛ الناتج ما يحدث على يمين السهم (ق) هو

d.خط '___'التي تشكل جزءا من البيئة البيئة بعد االنتاج ، هناك خط مائل '/' ، إلى يمين هذا الخط هو ، يبين بدقة أين يقع الجزء تغيرت ؛

الحرف عندما يظهر م] ɪ[ تصبح (أو "تتحول إلى") ن / ɪ / البادئة وبالتالي فإن الحكم على ما يلي :ن] في مكان آخر. ɪ[ ويصبح الساكنة حلقي عند ظهوره قبل ]ɪ N[ ويصبح الساكنة ، قبل الشفهي

الصوتية النموذجية التي يمكن أن تكون ممثلةvelarization ، وأيضا عمليات dentalizationالتأنف ، وفقا للقواعد التالية :

حكم التأنف )7(

[- األنف] [+ األنف] / _____ [+ األنف]

Dentalizationحكم )8(

[واألسنان] [+ األسنان] / _____ [+ األسنان]

Velarizationحكم )9(

[- حلقي] [+ حلقي] / _____ [+ حلقي]

الجزء الثاني : المورفولوجيا

ما هو علم الصرف؟


الذي يتعامل مع دراسة للكلمات ، وبنيتها الداخلية وجزئيا اللسانيات هو جزء من التشكل انها مهتمة ايضا في كيفية مستخدمي لغة معينة فهم الكلمات المعقدة وابتكار سلع جديدة . المعاني من

(التي توضح كيفية النطق علم األصوات كما تشعر التشكل مع أشكال الكلمة هو أقرب إلى المعجمية. كما الدراسات المعجمية الكلمات ، كما رأينا في الجزء األول من هذه الدورة) ، ويرتبط أيضا إلى

وعالوة على ذلك ، يرتبط أيضا تستخدم أنماط التشكل التي درستها إلنشاء الكلمات الجديدة.انها تتعامل مع معاني الكلمات ، كما سنرى في الفصل الثاني. دالالت مع

Scholars differentiate between derivational morphology and inflectional morphology. The former is concerned with the relationships of different words,

and with the ways in which vocabulary items can be built from some elements, as in un-speak-able ; while the latter deals with the forms of one word that it takes

up depending on its grammatical functions in a sentence. When it comes to English it appears that it rather takes advantage of derivational morphemes

rather than inflectional ones.

Morphemes in morphology are the smallest units that carry meaning or fulfill some grammatical function. The word house itself consists of one morpheme, and

because it can stand by itself it can be called a free morpheme . In the word houses there are two morphemes house, which is free, and s whish is

a bound morpheme , because it cannot stand by itself as it would have no meaning. In the second example above the bound morpheme - s was attached

to house – a free morpheme.

الفصل األول

المفاهيم األساسية

Of Morphological Analysis

We move now from an examination of the smallest segments of language (sounds) to a larger unit (the word). Morphology is the study of the internal

structure of words. So, it is necessary to know what a word is. What we mean by a word is not always clear. This is due to the fact that the term 'word' is used to denote quite a good variety of senses. For instance, this term may refer to the

word form or to the lexeme.

1.Lexemes and word-forms

What would you do if you come across a difficult word, say the word 'flutter' , for the first time in the below context?

She flattered eyelashes at him 2

You would probably look up that unfamiliar word in the dictionary, not under flattered, but rather flatter . This is because you know

that flattered is not going to be listed in the dictionary. You also know, without consulting anybody, that the words fluttering and flutters will

exist. Moreover, you know that fluttering, flutter,



http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/phonology.htm&usg=ALkJrhj_eYpEat35rGtr5Cjv3jXKCeqPhw


http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/jezykoznawstwo.htm&usg=ALkJrhg5PhRkQf85ETHSkB8roYOlXhk1-A

flattered and flutters are all different of the same abstract vocabulary item. This abstract vocabulary item is calledLEXEME. So, the

forms fluttering, flutter, flattered and flutters are REALISATIONS (or representations or manifestations) of the lexeme FLUTTER (lexemes are conventionally written in capital letters). They all share a core meaning although they are spelled or pronounced differently. Therefore, we can

define a lexeme as the vocabulary item that is listed in the dictionary; in short it is a dictionary entry.


which ones of the words in the table below belong to the same السؤال :lexeme?

يرىcatchingصبيقامةcatchesانظر

sleepsنائمأطولرأىقبضنساء

المشاهدنومالفتيانة

talljumpedاشتعلت

القفزsleptjumpsامرأةقفزةرؤية

The physical word-forms are realizations of the lexeme

see, sees, seeing, saw, seen SEE

sleeps, sleeping, slept SLEEP

catch, catches, catching, caught CATCH

jump, jumps, jumped, jumping JUMP

Tall, taller, tallest TALL

boy, boys BOY

woman, women WOMAN

Answer : we should all agree that:

Answer : we should all agree that:

As we have seen above, when we use the term 'word', it is not always the abstract vocabulary item or dictionary entry that is meant. Rather,


we use that term to refer to a particular physical realization of that lexeme, that is a particular WORD-FORM.


The verb lexeme SEE, has the word-forms see, sees, seeing, saw, seen

The adjective lexeme GOOD, has the word-forms good, better , and best

However, any sense the term 'word' takes, it is still possible to decompose it into smaller units, namely morphemes, morphs, and

allomorphs.

2.Morphs, morphemes and allomorphs

2.1. Morphemes

Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units in a language. Free morphemes are morphemes

that can stand alone as a word, while bound morphemes cannot stand alone. Most bound morphemes are affixes , which (for English) fall into two broad

groups,prefixes (attaching to the

beginning of the stem) and suffixes (attaching to the end of a stem).

Morphemes with an independent meaning are called content/lexical morphemes, while morphemes that only provide

grammatical information are called function /grammatical morphemes. Bear in mind not to confuse between morphemes (units of meaning) and syllables (units

of articulation).

Examples (English)

UnladylikeoThe word unladylike consists of three morphemes and four syllables.

oMorpheme breaks:

un- 'not'

lady '(well behaved) female adult human'

-like 'having the characteristics of'

oNone of these morphemes can be broken up any more without losing all sense of meaning. Lady cannot be broken up into "la" and "dy," even though "la" and "dy" are separate syllables. Note that each syllable has no meaning

on its own.

الكالب

oThe word dogs consists of two morphemes and one syllable:

dog, and


-s, a plural marker on nouns

oNote that a morpheme like "-s" can just be a single phoneme and does not have to be a whole syllable.

تقنية

oThe word technique consists of only one morpheme having two syllables.

oEven though the word has two syllables, it is a single morpheme because it cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful parts.

2.2. Morphs and allomorphs

Consider the following words and comment on how their plural is formed, ignoring their spelling .

How is the plural morpheme realized?

1.rat, book, laugh2.dog, reader, way

3.wish, garage , fridge

The actual shapes morphemes – which are abstract units – occur in, are called morphs . Two or several morphs realizing one morpheme are

called allomorphs of that morpheme. Thus, the {plural} morpheme of English has several allomorphs. Allomorphs whose occurrence can be predicted from the

phonological context (like the voiced/voiceless plural allomorphs) are called phonologically conditioned , while 'irregular' allomorphs that only occur

with certain unpredictable words are called lexically conditioned .

So, any language has a register of morphemes, the physical realizations of which are called morphs, as we have seen. While morphemes remain ideal abstract

units, the corresponding morphs may show some variation. In the above case of the plural morpheme, for instance, various realizations are possible. These

variations sound and look differently:

/z/ in "dogs, beds, etc;". /s/ in "cats, rats, etc;". /iz/ in "garages, wish, etc" .

All three morphs are different representations of the same morpheme of plurality. Several morphs that belong to the same morpheme are also called allomorphs :

variants of one morpheme. In morphological transcription, morphs are commonly put between braces. The plural morph in "cats" thus becomes {cat}+{s} in

morphological transcription.

الفصل الثاني


Types of Morphemes

After seeing that words have internal structure in the previous chapter, the time is ripe to examine the elements that ensure the building of

words, so, we are going to see, in this chapter, the types of morphemes. Let us start by roots and affixes.

1.Roots and Affixes

A ROOT is a (usually free) morpheme around which words can be built up through the addition of affixes. The root usually has a more-specific

meaning than the affixes that attach to it. eg.: The root 'kind' can have affixes added to it to form 'kindly', 'kindness', 'kinder', 'kindest'. The root

is the item you have left when you strip all other morphemes off of a complex word. In the word ' dehumanizing' , for example, if you strip off all the affixes -ing, -ize, and de-, human is what you have left. It cannot

be divided further into meaningful parts. It is the root of the word.

An AFFIX is a bound morpheme which attaches to a base (root or stem). PREFIXES attach to the front of a base; SUFFIXES to the end of a base;INFIXES are inserted inside of a root. An example of a prefix is the

're-' of 'rewrite'; of a suffix, '-al' of 'critical.'

2.Stems and Bases

A BASE is an element (free or bound, root morpheme or complex word) to which additional morphemes are added. A base can consist of a single root morpheme, as with the 'kind' of 'kindness'. But a base can also be a

word that itself contains more than one morpheme.

Example: (English)

We can use the word 'kindness' as a base to form the word 'kindnesses'; to make 'kindnesses', we add the plural morpheme, spelled '-es' in this case, to the base

'kindness.'

The STEM is that part of a word that is in existence before any inflectional affixes (ie those affixes whose presence is required by the

syntax such as markers of plural in nouns, tense in verbs, etc.) have been added. Inflection shall be discussed in the following section. In

other words, A stem is theroot or roots of a word, together with any derivational affixes , to which inflectional affixes are added.

Example: (English)

The verbs ' tie' and ' untie' are both stems.The inflectional third person singular suffix -s may be added to the stems to form

' ties' and ' unties' .


http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticterms/WhatIsASuffix.htm&usg=ALkJrhhzRyNOu2C6YEKtSxKhLrSNO1GNNw

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticterms/WhatIsSingularNumber.htm&usg=ALkJrhhUVTdZGPdxg-8yndGcXT3gJeu9DQ

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticterms/WhatIsThirdPersonDeixis.htm&usg=ALkJrhgdfSTYBQ_MoZ7HGfXHnnpntPYEdg

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticterms/WhatIsAnInflectionalAffix.htm&usg=ALkJrhiOQPyg_vrwYmx3trJbVst6oNiiAQ

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticterms/WhatIsADerivationalAffix.htm&usg=ALkJrhi4lcHDS257DsUUKm9A2I8XNbxymA

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.sil.org/linguistics/GlossaryOfLinguisticterms/WhatIsARoot.htm&usg=ALkJrhgZMmTmyb0HXMGNucWzWZo1cS4zww

3.Inflectional and derivational morphemes

Bound morphemes can be divided into two major functional categories, namely DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES and INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES .

These two categories reflect two main word-building processes, namely derivation and inflection . This is because derivational and

inflectional morphemes form words in different ways. Derivational form new words either:

a.By changing the meaning of the base to which it is attached; eg kind vs unkind (both are adjectives but with opposite

meanings); obey and disobey (both are verbs but with opposite meanings).

b.By changing the word-class that a base belongs to, for example the addition of –ly to the adjectives kind and simple produces the adverbs kind-ly and simp-ly.

c.By changing the grammatical sub-class of a word without moving it into a new word-class (as in the case of friend (noun) and friend-ship (another noun).

Below is a sample of some English derivational affixes . This is only a sample; there are far more affixes than presented here.

Some derivational affixes of English

AffixClass(es) of word to which affix applies

Nature of change in meaning

أمثلة

Prefix 'non'-

Noun, adjectiveNegation/oppositeNoun: non- starter Adj.: non- partisan

Suffix '-ity'

Changes to nounelectric/electric ityنعتobese/obes ity

Prefix 'un'-

الفعلنعت

Reverses action opposite quality

tie/ un tie, fasten/ un fasten

clear/ un clear, safe/ un safe

Suffix '-ous'

, Changes to adjectivefame/fam ousاالسمglamor/glamorous

Prefix 're'-

Repeat actiontie/ re tie, write/ re writeالفعل

Suffix '-able'

;Changes to adjectiveالفعلmeans 'can undergo

action of verb'

print/print able , drink/drinkable

www.freewebs.com/hsalhi of 27

As for inflectional morphemes, they do not engender any change of the above mentioned kinds, but rather they are required by the syntax such

as markers of plural in nouns, tense in verbs, etc., as we have seen above. See the table below for a list by the frequently used inflectional

morphemes in English (all of them are suffixes). It should be mentioned that English has no inflectional prefixes but some other languages do.

-sاالسم

book-sصيغة الجمع

-sالفعل

3 rd person, singular, present tense

sleep-s

-edالفعل

-walkالماضي المتوترed

-ing

الفعل

progressive (action)walk-ing

-erنعت

comparative degreetall-er

-est

نعت

superlative degreetall-est

Note that the above listed inflectional morphemes fall within what we call REGULAR INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY , and that you are also

required to master the IRREGULAR INFLECTIONAL MORPHOLOGY. The below table shows some English irregular inflectional morphemes :

Irregular inflectional morphology:

Type of irregularity

Noun plurals

Verbs: past tenseVerbs: past participle

Unusual suffixox en , syllab i ,

antenn ae

،tak en , see n , fall en , eat en

Change of stem vowel

foot/f ee t, mouse/m ice

run/r a n, come/c a me, flee/fl e d, meet/m e t, fly/fl ew ,

stick/st u ck, get/g o t, break/br oke

swim/sw u m, sing/s u ng

Change of stem vowel with unusual

suffix

feel/f e l t , kneel/kn e l twrite/wr i tt en , do/d one ,

break/br o k en , fly/fl own


Change in base/stem form

(sometimes with unusual suffix)

،send/sen t , bend/ben t , think/th ought , teach/t aught ,

buy/b ought

send/sen t , bend/ben t , think/thought , teach/t aught ,

buy/bought

Zero-marking (no suffix, no stem

change)

deer, sheep, moose, fish

hit, beathit, beat, come

الفصل الثالث

اإلنجليزية

Word Formation

العمليات

مقدمة.1

Although the terms ' WORD FORMATION ' do not have nowadays a clear-cut, universally accepted usage, they are conventionally used to refer to all processes

connected with changing the form of the word by, for example, affixation, which is a matter of morphology . In its wider sense word formation denotes the processes

of creation of new lexical units. Although it seems that the difference between morphological change of a word and creation of a new term are quite easy to

perceive there is sometimes a dispute as to whether blending is still a morphological change or making a new word.

There are, of course, numerous word formation processes that do not arouse any controversies and are very similar in the majority of languages:

2.Major processes

The below mentioned word formation processes are the most frequent or important in the English language.

2.1. Derivation or affixation

Derivation is probably the most common word formation process in the English language. It is achieved by adding affixes: prefixes “ are added

at the beginning of a word, suffixes added to the end of a word, or infixes which are inserted inside a word, but infixes are unusual in

English and are especially common in Semitic languages like Standard Arabic. English prefixes include for example re-, un-, mis-, pre-, dis-;

suffixes include for instance -ful, -less, -able, -or.


http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.tlumaczenia-angielski.info/linguistics/morphology.htm&usg=ALkJrhge1jQVM57o4Qz1QeIR2aTUlDx9WQ

2.2. Compounding

Compounding is a process in which two different words are joined together to denote one thing. For example flower-pot is a compound

made of two words: flower and pot, but it does not denote two things, it refers to one object. Some English compounds include: windmill,

waterfall, fingerprint, scarecrow. Compounds are pronounced as one unit, but sometimes difficulties in writing arise: some compounds are

written with hyphens: full-time; some are written separately: bank account, mini skirt; and some can be written in both ways.

تحويل .2.3

Conversion or zero derivation process is a change in function of a verb without changing its form. Nouns start to be used as verbs like: bottle “ to bottle, bottling” as in “ I'm bottling the compote”; butter “ to butter,

buttered” as in “ I've buttered the bread”. Also verbs can become nouns: must “ a must” as in “Watching this film is a must”; guess “ a

guess” as in “It was a lucky guess.”

3.Minor Processes

Other minor word-formation processes in English are also productive, the most productive ones are explained below.

Blending is very similar to compounding, but it is characterized by taking only parts of words and joining them. Famous English examples include: smog which

combines smoke and fog , motel made of motor and hotel , Spanglish which is combination of Spanish and English ; and guesstimate , from guess andestimate .

Borrowing is taking a word from one language and incorporating it into another. The English language has been very absorbent and took over words from all over

the world, some of them include: biology, boxer, ozone from German; jackal, kiosk, yogurt from Turkish; pistol, robot from Czech.

Acronym is a word formed from initial letters of a few words in a phrase or a name. Some acronyms are pronounced by saying each letter separately, as in CD,

DVD, VCR, IBM, FBI. Some are pronounced as words, like NATO, laser, AIDS, UNESCO.

Backformation is a process in which a word changes its form and function. Word of one type, which is usually a noun, is reduced and used as a verb. To show it on

an example: the English word arms meaning weapon was backformed to arm to mean provide weapons, similarly edit was backformed from editor, or typewrite

from typewriter.

Required Texts:

Katamba, Francis (1989) An Introduction to Phonology . Longman Group UK Limited.

Katamba, Francis (1993) Morphology , MACMILLAN Press LTD


Selected readings at one of the photocopy shops

شكرا لزيارتكم

www.freewebs.com/hsalhi .

This web site shall be my means of communication to you and vice versa.

In addition to courses, you shall find the notifications I want to convey to you,

especially those related to your exam. As for you, you can write to me and to your colleagues

using the “Guestbook” page you shall find on the left of the main page or any

other page, as shown below, or you go directly to the “contact me” page,

there you can find a link also.

Thanks for your interest in

linguistics and the Internet .

.

كيفية استخدام

the web site

First step: log in the web site ( www.freewebs.com/hsalhi )

Second step: log in (or enter) the guestbook page

منزل Oral Expression

Introduction to linguistics

Semantics and pragmatics

Translation theories

Notifications and Chat


http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/notificationsandchat.htm&usg=ALkJrhiPKV5Hl9_h920tECIEqdURFUNtgA

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/translationtheories.htm&usg=ALkJrhhN2QubaVRwgDoPSZYamGEYhrkOEA

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/semanticsandpragmatics.htm&usg=ALkJrhjOYEPni2KyqjCS7GeoIx8avUSlcg

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/introductiontolinguistics.htm&usg=ALkJrhh-YXTX8EP3bOor3jgrSGFFkUbfQA

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/oralexpression.htm&usg=ALkJrhhLexW8UQy518b7yEZjOb9T_RkuNw

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/index.htm&usg=ALkJrhhcJ1ltOmTdohVWux6hQupC7YQX5w

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi&usg=ALkJrhi_KNqOup8ISBerCEJ04trHK5OhhQ

Guestbook to leave a message Click here on the guestbook page

بلدي المدونة

related documents

Exams

cantact me

Photo Album

Third step : post your remark

سجل الزوار

االسم :

البريد اإللكتروني :

انتقل

Post your entry

press on the « post entry » button after you finish your remark,

then you will see it posted in 30 seconds


http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/myblog.htm&usg=ALkJrhhHLgLETsq1j8WEg94su7DjfdQTgw


http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/cantactme.htm&usg=ALkJrhjMV9xhL-xH_bynE__GEhUSFR3jzg

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/exams.htm&usg=ALkJrhjw5R2RFI4S_ssfEKnEf2owH8gsVg

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/relateddocuments.htm&usg=ALkJrhjgOYDF6wymYSywECcU3UjIEEFNiA


http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/guestbook.htm&usg=ALkJrhghvPWkQbkmCHPxV2JcEqcgx7id6g

http://translate.googleusercontent.com/translate_c?hl=ar&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dphonology(is%2Babranch%2Bof%2Blinguistics.closely%2Brelated%2Bto%2Bphonetics)%26hl%3Dar%26biw%3D994%26bih%3D560%26prmd%3Dimvns&rurl=translate.google.com.eg&sl=en&u=http://www.freewebs.com/hsalhi/guestbook.htm&usg=ALkJrhghvPWkQbkmCHPxV2JcEqcgx7id6g

lecture phono

Documents