NOTES

CHAPTER 1

1. Hannah Arendt, On Revolution (New York: Viking, 1965),20.2. On the introdu ction of the term revolution in intellectual history, see

IIan Rachum , "R evolution": The Entrance of a New World intoWestern Political Discourse (Lanham, MD : University Press ofAmerica, 1999).

3. Th is assumption was shared even by those who argued that "there isno agreed definition of revolution"; see Mattei Dogan and JohnHigle y, "E lites, Crises, and Regimes in Comparative Analysis," inElites, Crises, and the Origin s of Regimes, cds. Mattei Dogan andJohn Higley (Lanham, MD : Rowman and Littlefield, 1998),9. The ystated that revolutions "constitu ted political crises of the highestorder," leading to a situation where "political power is up for grabs."It was implied here that the new order, although resting on the foun­dation of the old political and social system, would nevertheless bedifferent.

4 . Arendt, On Revolution, 112; Fred Halliday, R evolution and WorldPolitics: The Rise and Fall ofthe Sixth Great Power (Basingstoke, UK:Macmillan, 1999); Charles Tilly, "History and SociologicalImagining," Tocqueville R eview 15 (1994); 65 . Tilly, though skepti ­cal about patterns of revolution development, still believes one cansee some general features . For him, revolution consisted of rapid andvisible depreciation ofstate power, divisions in control over the majormeans of coercion, formation of antiregime coalitions, and otherpolitical shifts that neither guaranteed revolution nor const itutedparts of the definit ion . Political scientists even tried to deuniversal izethe Marxist theory of revolution that provided, at least in generaloutline, a universal pattern for revolutionary uphe avals, claiming that"Marx did not try to create a general theory of the revolution rele­vant to all kinds of societies at all times." See Theda Skocpol, Social

186 NOT E S

Revolutions in the Modern World (Cambridge : Cambridge UniversityPress, 1994), 121.

5. Skocpol, Social Revolutions, 105.6. Quoted in ibid.7. Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, MA:

Addison-Wesley, 1978).8. Quoted in Skocpol, Social Revolutions, 133.9. This was the case with political scientist Samuel Huntington. In his

view, a revolution was a rapid, fundamental, violent change in thedominant values and myths of a society in its political institutions,social structure, leadership, government policies, and activities. Thecollapse of the old order led to the rise of a new one . A "completerevolution" implied "the creation and institutional ization of newpolitical order into which an explosion of popular participation innational affairs is channeled." Quoted in Skocpol, Social Revolutions,129,133.

10. JackA. Goldstone, "The SovietUnion: Revolution and Transformation,"in Elites, Crises, and the Origins ofRegimes, eds. Dogan and Higley,99 .

11. Skocpol, Social Revolutions, 279 .12. Karl Griewank, "Emergence of the Concept of Revolution," in

Revolutions in Modern European History, ed. Heinz Lubasz (NewYork: Macmillan, 1966),55.

13. Ibid.14. Ibid ., 57.15. Arendt, On Revolution, 13.16. Ibid .,20.17. Ibid ., 36.18. William Sewell, "Ideologies and Social Revolutions: Reflections on

the French Case," Journal of Modern History 57 (March, 1985):57-85, quoted in Skocpol, Social Revolutions, 192 .

19. David Bayley, Patterns of Policing: A Comparative InternationalAnalysis(New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1985), 132 .

20 . Emile Durkheim , The Division ofLabor in Society (1893; repr., NewYork: Free Press, 1984).

21. Pitirim A. Sorokin, The Sociology of Revolution (1925; repr., NewYork: Howard Fertig, 1967).

22 . Ibid ., 3.23 . Sorokin's analysis isolated three major types of culture. See Joseph

B. Ford, Michel P. Richard, and Palmer C. Talbutt, eds., Sorokinand Civilization: A Centennial Assessment (New Brunswick, NJ:Transaction, 1996), 6.

24. Sorokin, Sociology ofRevolution, 3.

NOTES 187

25. Ibid ., 12.26. Jack Goldstone, Revolution and Rebellion in the Early Modern World

(Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001).27. Sorokin, Sociology ofRevolution, 12.28. Pitirim Sorokin, Man and Society in Calamity: The Effect of War,

Revolution, Famine, Pestilence upon Human Mind, Behavior, SocialOwanization, and Cultural Lift (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1963).

29 . Skocpol, Social Revolutions, 125.30. Richard Pipes, Russia under the Old Regime (New York: Scribner,

1974).31. Roger Chartier, On the Edge of the Cliff History, Language, and

Practice (Baltimore : Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), 19. Seealso Keith Michael Baker, Inventing the FrenchRevolution: Essays onFrench Political Culture in the Eighteenth Century (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1990).

32 . Sorokin, Man and Society in Calamity, 124 .

CHAPTER 2

1. David Bayley, Patterns of Policing: A Comparative InternationalAnalysis (New Brunswick, NJ : Rutgers University Press, 1985),34.

2. Pitirim A. Sorokin, Man and Society in Calamity: The Effect of War,Revolution, Famine, Pestilence upon Human Mind, Behavior, Social0wanization, and Cultural Lift (1942; repr., New York: E. P.Dutton, 1963), 131. This was the first and last attempt to ration sexand provide it along with other commodities. However, somethingsimilar introduced much later by some Bolshevik groups includedrationing women.

3. Bayley, Patterns ofPolicing, 35 .4 . Ibid ., 3.5. Ibid ., 28 .6. Ibid ., 80 .7. James Shapiro, "Who Is Buried in Virgil's Tomb?" New York Times

BookReview, March 21,1999,11.8. Bayley, Patterns ofPolicing, 32.9. A recent example would be the collapse of the Taliban in

Afghanistan, which led to violent crime (Peter Baker, "DisorderReplaces Taliban in Southern No Man's Land," Washington PostOnline, December 11, 2001). A similar process can be seen in revo­lutions in premodern and non-Western societies, where collapse ofstrong state power led to proliferation of violent crime.

188 NOTES

10. George Simmel, On Individuality and Social Forms: Selected Writings(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971),63. For many premod­ern people, especially nomads, the job of bandits (raids in search ofbooty) became so inseparable from their identity that their self-defi­nition would be freebooter; see George Vernadsky, Mongoly i Rus'(Tver: Lean/Agraf, 1997), trans . as The Mongols and Russia (NewHaven, CT : YaleUniversity Press, 1953),298. Their often sedentaryadversaries called them "simply 'enemies' or 'robbers.'" AndrewRobert Burn, Persia and the Greeks: The Defense of the West, c.546-478 B.G. (London: Edward Arnold, 1970),73.

The fact that the bandits' job entailed murder and rape did notbother these people, because deep restraint was exercised when deal­ing with those to whom they were connected by blood ties or friend­ship. Outside the circle, anything was permitted (Simmel, OnIndividuality and Social Forms, 262) . "For most of humanity, thetribe is the unit within which killing is considered murder, and out­side ofwhich killing may be a proofofmanhood and bravery, a pleas­ure and a duty," Erich Goode, Deviant Behavior (Englewood Cliffs,NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1990), 215 . The culture (it still survives in someplaces) saw nothing wrong in killing enemies or mere strangers forfun, as a form of entertainment. Maureen Dowd, "Go Fly a Kite,Taliban," New York Times on the Web, November 14, 200l.

11. This practice can be found in modern Africa, for example Congo,which is seemingly endlessly embroiled in ethnic strife and the mostmacabre atrocities ("U.N . Probes Cannibalism Report in Congo,"New York Times, January 8, 2003). In the city of Drodro, 966 peo­ple were killed in early April 2003. Hamadoun Toure, spokesman forthe United Nations force in Congo, commented: "Nearly 1,000dead-I cannot remember a time when so many were killed in such ashort space of time" ("U.N. Investigates Alleged Civilian Massacre inCongo," New York Times, April 7, 2003). Remarkable also was thenature of those who committed the murders: women and childrenparticipated in "the bloody dawn raid."

12. Jean Delumeau and Yves Lcquin, Les malheurs des temps: histoire desfleau« et descalamites en France (Paris: Larousse, 1987),27; NorbertElias, The History of Manners: The Civilizing Process (New York:Pantheon, 1982), 192 .

13. Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs des temps, 39.14. Ibid ., 45 .15. Ibid ., 68. On the invasion of barbarians, see also Fernand Braudel,

The Identity ofFrance, 2 vols. (New York: HarperCollins, 1986-90),2: 119.

16. Claude Gauvard, «Degrace especial": crime, etat et societeen FranceiT la fin du Moyen Age (Paris: Sorbonne, 1991),262-63. Until the

NOTES 189

nineteenth century, the fight against piracy was an essential aspectof colonial power in the non-European world. Hugh Kennedy,"Rivals to the Freedom of the Seas," Times Literary Supplement,September 4, 1998,25.

17. Simrncl, On Individuality and SocialForms, 332 .18. Emphasis on loyalty to the ruler was found all over Eurasia, especially

in societies with warrior elites. Personal loyalty to the ruler as a car­dinal virtue was emphasized in the Mongol empire and mostnomadic societies. Savitskiieven assumed that the tradition of killinga ruler's wives and children and burying them together stems fromemphasis on absolute devotion to the leader. Petr NikolaevichSavitskii, Kontinent Evraziia (Moscow: Agraf, 1997),345.

19. Elias, History ofManners, 195.20. Ibid ., 193.21 . Samuel Clark, State and Status: The Rise ofthe State and Aristocratic

Power in Western Europe (Montreal : McGill-Queen's UniversityPress, 1995),338.

22 . Sorokin, Man and Society, 108 . It was not surprising that preparationfor war and full immersion in the culture of violence was an essentialpart ofelite life. Direct force to receive wealth and ensure the tlowofgoods to the tribute collector was not only an attribute of medievalEurope or premodern societies but also can be seen in post-SovietRussia, which has socioeconomic conditions strikingly similar toEuropean feudalism. Iuliia Latynina, "Ncpravitclsrvcnnyi Zakhvat,"Novaia Gazeta, March 26, 2001.

23 . Victor Davis Hanson, The Wars of the Ancient Greeks (London:Cassell, 2001),67.

24 . Herodotus, The Histories (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998),62 .

25 . Elias, History ofManners, 195 .26. Clark, State and Status, 158.27 . Elias, History ofManners, 194 .28 . Ibid., 195.29 . This was also the case with the Mongols; see Vernadsky, Mongolsand

Russia, 110 .30. Jorge Arditi, A Genealogy of Manners: Transformations of Social

Relations in France and England from the Fourteenth to theEighteenth Century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998),62 .

31. Esther Cohen, "Violence Control in Late Medieval France," LegalHistory Review 51 (1983): 120 .

32. Harold G. Marcus, A History of Ethiopia (Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press, 1994), 14.

190 NOT ES

33. For a general description of anarchy in the fourteenth and fifteenthcenturies, see Barbara W. Tuchman, A Distant Mirror: TheCalamitous 14th Century (New York: Ballantine, 1979).

34. Dean Keith Simonton, "Do Sorokin's Data Support His Theory: AStudy of Generational Fluctuations in Philosophical Beliefs," inSorokin and Civilization: A Centennial Assessment, eds. Joseph B.Ford, Michel P. Richard, and Palmer C. Talbutt (New Brunswick,NJ: Transaction, 1996), 197 .

35. Pitirim A. Sorokin, Social and Cultural Dynamics, 4 vols. (New York:Bedminster, 1962),2: 49 .

36. A similar process could be seen elsewhere. Soviet Russia in the late1920s experienced peasant migration to the cities, which eroded thetraditional safety net and system of control. Vadim Volkov, "TheConcept of 'Kul'turnost,'" in Stalinism: New Directions, ed. SheilaFitzpatrick (London: Routledge 1999),215.

37. Talcott Parsons, The Structure of Social Action: A Study in SocialTheory with Special Reference to a Group ofRecent European Writers(Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1949),346.

38. Ibid ., 367 .39. Sorokin, Social and Cultural Dynamics, 3: 177 .40. William Buxton, "Snakes and Ladders: Parsons and Sorokin at

Harvard," in Sorokin and Civilization: A Centennial Assessment,eds.Ford, Richard, and Talbutt, 33.

41. Parsons, The Structure ofSocial Action, 375 .42 . Ibid., 372 .43 . Pitirim A. Sorokin, Society, Culture, and Personality: Their Structure

and Dynamics: A System of General Sociology (New York: CooperSquare, 1969),92 .

CHAPTER 3

1. Some historians argue that population growth and extension oflandunder cultivation indicated stability; see Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie,"Motionless History," Social Science History 1, no . 2 (1977); JeanDelumeau and Yves Lequin, Lesmalheurs destemps: histoiredesfleau«et des calamites en France (Paris: Larousse, 1987), 116, 150, 158.But Jacques Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape: dClinquance et criminal­itt dans la region dJAvignon au quatorzieme siicle (Paris: Sorbonne,1984),158, writes about "the demographic, economic, social crisis"in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries . See also Barbara BeckermanDavis, "Reconstructing the Poor in Early Sixteenth CenturyToulouse ," French History 7, no . 3 (1993): 277.

NOTES 191

2. R. J. Knecht, Renaissance Warrior and Patron: The Reign ofFrancisI (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 356 . On thedecline of laborers' wages, see also Robin W. Winks, Crane Brinton,John B. Christopher, and Robert Wolff, A History of Civilization:Prehistory to the Present (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall,1996),233.

3. Bronislaw Geremek, The MaJ;gins of Society in Late Medieval Paris(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987),242-43.

4. Norbert Elias, The History ofManners, The Civilizing Process, vol. I(New York: Pantheon, 1982), 195 .

5. Claude Gauvard, "Degrace especial": crime, etat et societe en France alaftn du Moyen Age (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1991),935;Nicole Gonthier, La chdtiment du crime au Moyen Age XIIe-XVIe(Rennes : Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 1998),205.

6. Claude Gauvard, "Fear of Crime in Late Medieval France," inMedieval Crime and Social Control, eds. Barbara A. Hanawalt andDavid Wallace (Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press, 1999),1. See also Gauvard, «Degrace especial,"162, 220.

7. Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs; 195 .8. Barbara A. Hanawalt and David Wallace, eds., Introduction to

Medieval Crime and Social Control, xi. On the war and crime see alsoGauvard, «Degrace especial"550.

9. Karen Barkey, Bandits and Bureaucrats: The Ottoman Route to StateCentralization (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994),9.

10. Bloodshed was easy in Europe at the time. Sec Robert Muchembled,"Anthropologie de la violence dans la France moderne (XVe-XVIIIesiecle)," Revue de Synthise I (January-March 1987): 37.

11 . George Simmel, On Individuality and SocialForms: Selected Writings(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971),81.

12. Xuezhi Guo, The Ideal Chinese Political Leader: A Historical andCultural Prospective (Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2002),134.

13. At the beginning of the modern era there was a strong streak of ano­mization in the fabric of French society. Asocial drives endangeredsociety's very existence. "Durkheim had clearly shown empiricallythat beyond a certain point the extension of anomie is dangerous tophysical life itself." Talcott Parsons, The Structure ofSocial Action: AStudy in Social Theory with Special Reference to a Group of RecentEuropean Writers (Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1949), 392.

14 . Elias, The History ofManners, xvi, IS.IS. John Bellamy, Crime and Public Order in England in the Later

Middle Ages (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973),66.16. Cohen, "Violence Control in Late Medieval France," 121.17. Ibid .," 120 .

192 NO T ES

18. The situation is similar in part s of the contemporary world that haveexperienced the collapse of authority and culture.

19. Gauvard, "De grace especial," 533 ; Mon ique Bourin and BernardChevalier, "Le comp ortement criminel dans lcs pays de la loiremoyenne, d'apres les lcttre s de remission (vers 1380-vers 1450 ),"Annales de Bretagne et des Pays de tJOuest 88 (1981): 254.

20 . Gauvard, -t»grace especial, JJ 1.21 . Simon Pepper, "Up Close and Personal," Times Literary Supplement,

October 26,2001,36.22 . Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 25 .23 . Ibid ., 66, 68 .24. Cohen, "Violence Control," 118 .25. Gauvard, «De g race especial," 166 (on homicide, see also p. 529 );

Chiffolcau, Lesjustices du pape, 162 .26 . Chiffoleau, Lesj ustices du pape, 156; Nicole Gonthier, "Delinquantes

ou victimes: les femmes dans la societe lyonnaise," Revue Historique271 (1984): 30-31.

27 . Chiffoleau, Les justicesdu pape, 152; Nicole Gonthier, Dilinquance,justice et societe dans le lyonnais medieval: de la fin du XIIIe siecle audebut du XVIe siecle(Paris: Editions Argum ent s, 1993 ),324.

28. Stanley 1. Greenspan and Serena Wieder with Robin Simons, TheChild with Special N eeds (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1998), 29 .

29 . Cohen, "Violence Control," 119 .30 . Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 147 .31. Gonthier, Delinquance, 72 .32. Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 10.33. Ib id., 1.34 . Ibid .35 . Ibid., 3.36 . Ibid ., 6.37. Ibid ., 5.38 . Ibid ., 12.39. Walter B. Miller, "Lower Class Culture as a Generating Milieu of

Gang Delinquency," in Social Deviance, ed . Erich Goode (Boston:Allyn and Bacon, 1996),105 .

40 . Ibid., 106.41. See, for example, Zavtra, February 19,2002.42 . Gauvard, «Degrace especial," 268.43 . Ibid ., 270 -71.44. Gonthier, Delinquance, 171.45. Samuel Clark, Sta te and Status: The Rise ofthe State and Aristocratic

Power in Western Europe (Montreal: McGill-Queen's UniversityPress, 1995 ),342 .

46 . Simmel, On Individuality and Social Forms, 201 -2 .

NOT ES 193

47. According to some historians, the banditry could not have spreadwithout the he!p of the nobility. Barkey (Bandits and Bureaucrats,S)notes : "Fernand Braude! writes, 'Behind banditry, that terre strialpiracy, appeared the continual aid of lords,' an indication that thenobility was attempting to disrupt state-making through such inno­vative means ."

48 . Jean Gallet, "En Bretagne, seigneurie et pouvoir militaire du XVIe auXVIIIe siecle," Revue Historique desArmees 1 (1985) : 8.

49 . Gauvard, «Degrace especial," 534.50. Knecht, Renaissance Warrior and Patron, 359 .51. Ibid ., 42 .52 . S. H . Cuttler, The Law of Treason and Treason Trials in Later

Medieval France (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981),33.

53. Gauvard, «Degrace especial," 538 .54. Ibid., 554 .55 . Ibid ., 201.56. Fernand Braudcl, The Identity of France, 2 vols. (New York:

HarperColiins, 1986-1990),2: 160 .57. Gauvard, «Deg race especial," 197 .58. Geremek, The Mar;ginsofSociety, 130.59. Ibid ., 246.60. Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 124.61. Maurice Berthe , Famines et epidemies dans lescampagnes navarraises

alafin du Moyen Age (Paris: S.F.I.E .D, 1984), 1: 260, 263 .62. Gerernck, The Mar;gins ofSociety, 127.63. Yves Berce, History ofPeasant Revolts: The Social Origins ofRebellion

in Early Modern France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,1990),283.

64. Braude!, The Identity ofFrance, vol. 2, p. 100.65. Jeffrey Richards, Sex, Dissidenceand Damnation: Minority Groups in

the Middle Ages (London: Routledge, 1991), 17.66. Berce, History ofPeasant Revolts, 100.67. Gauvard , «Degrace especial," 253-54.68 . Cuttler, The Law ofTreason, 147; Gallet, "En Bretagne," 5-6.69. Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 42 .70. Ibid., 49 .71. Ibid ., 46 .72 . Ibid ., 6, 48 .73 . Cuttler, The Law ofTreason, 163.74 . Berce, History ofPeasant Revolts, 100,282.75 . Francois Neveux, "Les marginaux et Ie clerge dans la ville et Ie

diocese de Bayeux aux XIVe ct XVe siecles," Cahier des Annales deNormandie 13 (1981): 35-36.

194 NO T E S

76 . Braudel, The Identity ofFrance, 2: 161.77 . Ibid ., 160 .78. Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 10.79. G. W. Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," in Medieval and

Middle Eastern Studies in Honor of Aziz Suryal Atiya, cd . Sami A.Hanna (Leiden : E. J. Brill, 1972 ), 83 .

80 . Gonthier, Delinquance, 170 .81. Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," 82 .82 . Elias, The H istory ofManners, 1: 63.83. Gonthier, Delinquances, 178 .84 . Geremek, The Mat;gins ofSociety, 246 .85. Elias, The History ofManners, 1: 63-64.86. Ibid ., 177.87 . Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Agincourt, Battle of."88 . Personal gain side by side with high moral standards was in no way

limited to the West. In Imperial China an essential characteristic of aMandarin bureaucrat was not just knowledge but high moral caliber.Still, what today's West would regard as corruption was seen asessential for a Mandarin bureaucrat to supplement his salary. Paul C.Hickey, "Fcc-Taking, Salary Reform, and the Structure of StatePower in Late Qing China, 1909-1911," Modern China 17, no. 3(1991) .

89 . The same connection can be found in post-Soviet Russia, whichsome scholars assert has traits of feudalism. Boris Berezovskii, forexample, received wealth from direct connections with Yeltsin. Insome cases he behaved exactly as a feudal baron ; he did not formallycontrol the enterprise but worked through his management, whowere like vassals from whom he collected a form of tribute. RobertCottrell, "Mr. Bigsky: Review of Paul Klebnikov," Godfather of theKremlin: Boris Berezovsky and the Looting of Russia (New York:Harcourt, 2000) and Chr ystia Freeland, Sale ofthe Century: Russia'sWild Ride from Communism to Capitalism (New York: Crown,2000)," New York Review ofBooks, October 19, 2000.

90 . The tradition of giving females to rulers for sex goes back toHerodotus, The H istories (Oxford/New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1998 ), 310 .

91. Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 8.92 . Ibid ., 23 .93 . Post-Soviet Russia law-enforcement agencies collected tribute

(Novaia Gazete, July 5, 2001).94 . Ibid ., 193 .95 . Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Cloak and Sword Drama."

NOTES 195

96 . Gerernek, The Mar;gins ofSociety, 147 , 150, 154. Students were notthe only literate ones who could easily be criminals; among themcould be poets such as Villon (128) .

97 . This would not be at odds with post -Soviet Russia, where underYeltsin bandits became absolutely legitimate and were regarded asthe "new violent entrepreneurs." Georgi Derluguian, The InvisibleFirst: Russia's Criminal Predators against Markets and Themselves,Program on New Approaches to Russian Security, Police MemoSeries 77 (October 1999),48.

98. Gerernek, The Mar;gins ofSociety, 157.99 . Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 124 .

100. Ibid ., 120, 140-41; Neveux, "u s marginaux ," 24.101. Neveux, "us marginaux," 27-29; for highway robberies see

Gonthier, Dilinquance, 164.102 . Neveux, "Les marginaux," 27 .103. Chiffoleau , Lesjustices du pape, 154 .104 . Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 47 .105 . Similarly, in the wake of the destruction of the USSR, criminals

looked for a powerful sponsor or sponsored various businesses them ­selves. See Vladimir Shlapentokh, "Early Feudalism : The BestParallel for Contemporary Russia," Europe-Asia Studies 48 (May1996): 393-413.

106 . Victor Davis Hanson, The Wars of the Ancient Greeks (London:Cassell, 2001),64.

107. Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Anabasis."108 . Braudel, The Identity ofFrance, 2: 162 .109. Machiavelli, The Prince (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1988),43.llO. Geremek, The Mar;gins ofSociety, 127 .111. Braudel, The Identity ofFrance, 2: 162 .112 . Barkey, Bandits and Bureaucrats,S.113 . Ibid ., 176.114 . Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 6.115 . Robert June, Poverty and Deviance in Early Modern Europe

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 188 .116 . Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 42.117 . Gerernek, The Mar;ginsofSociety, 126 .ll8. Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Louis X," http://search.eb.com/

article-9049063 .ll9 . John Casparis, "The Swiss Mercenary System: Labour Emigration

from the Semiperiphery," Review 4 (Spring 1982): 623 .120 . Ibid ., 624.121. Ibid. , 593 .

196 NO T ES

122. Ibid ., 623; see also Benoit Garnot, Crime et justice aux XVIle etXVIlle siecles (Paris: Imago, 2000), 79.

123 . "Who Are the 'Mercenaries'?" Time, December 22,1961.124 . The war in Iraq is a good example . In southern Iraq, soon after the

invasion, villagers started to "complain of roving bands of armedmen who steal tractors, hijack tru cks, loot factories, and terrorizelocal resident s with ncar-impunity" ; see Keith B. Richburg, "BanditsHindering British Peacekeeping Progress," Washington Post, March28,2003, and "Iraqis Loot Basra as British Take Cont rol," New YOrkTimes, April 7, 2003. The situation is common in modern Africa; see,for example, "Gangs Loot Central African Rep. Capital," New YorkTimes, March 18,2003.

125 . Casparis, "The Swiss Mercenary System ," 623 .126 . Jean Boca, La j ustice criminelle de l'echevinage d'Abbeville au moyen­

age, 1184-1516 (Lille: L. Dancl , 1930), 60; Chiffolcau, Les justicesdu pape, 167.

127 . Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 141; on banditry see p. 117.128. Neveux, "Les margineu x," 34-35.129. Gauvard, «De grace especial," 212 .

130. It was employed, for example, by peasants during Iacquerie to tor­ture captured nobles. For example, one "knight was tied to a spit androasted before the eyes of his wife and children , who were thenoffe red the flesh to eat." Stuart Flexner and Doris F1exner, ThePessimist's Guide to H istory (New York: Quill, 2000), 49 .

131. Coopland, "C rime and Punishment," 73.132. Geremek, The Marqins ofSociety, 115.133 . Coopland, "Crime and Punishment," 73.134 . Ibid ., 73-74.135 . Pierre Van der Vorst, A l'enseigne de la braconne: le parfait petit bra ­

conn ier, braconnages, braques, braconneux et braconniers, bier etaujourd'hui (Bruxelles: Editions de l' Universite de Bruxclles, 1982),229 .

136. Berce, History of Peasant Revolts, 100 .137. Gcrcmck, The Ma1;!Jins ofSociety, 126.138. Chiffoleau , Les justicesdu pape, 158 .139 . Geremek, The Ma1;!Jins ofSociety, 205 .140. Neveux, "Les marginaux," 35.141. Benoit Garnot, "La perception des delinquants en France du XIVeau

XIXe siecle," Revue Historique 296 , no . 2 (1996): 362.142. Bellamy, Cr ime and Publ ic Order, 76 .143. Gauvard, «Deg race especial, " 499 .144 . Ibid ., 487 .

NOTES 197

145. Marylce Reynolds, From Gangs to Gangsters: How AmericanSociology Ot;ganized Crime, 1918-1994 (Guilderland, NY: Harrowand Heston, 1995),53.

146. Gcrernek, The Mat;gins of Society, 126; Reynolds, From Gangs toGangsters, 53.

147. Bercc, History ofPeasant Revolts, 282 .148. Ibid ., 283 .149 . Encyclopedia Brittanica Online, "Iacqucric."150. Pitirim Sorokin, The Sociologyof Revolution (1925; repro New York:

H . Fertig 1967), 158.151. Chiffolcau, Lesjustices du pape, 118 .152. Geremek, The Mat;gins ofSociety, 126, 197 .153. Ibid., 265; on Jewish pogroms, see also Richards, Sex, Dissidence,

and Damnation, 103 .154. Berthe, Famines, 266 .155 . Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 481.156. Simmel, On Individuality and Social Forms, 153 .157. Jutre, Poverty and Deviance, 149, 151. The correlation between sub­

sistence crisis and crime was not alwaysevident; a rise in prices some­times corresponded with a decline in crime.

158. Ibid., 190 .159. This universal connection between uprooted people and crime can

be seen among refugees. See, for example, Peter Gatrell, A WholeEmpire Walking: Refugees in Russia during mwld War I (Bloomington:Indiana University Press, 1999),29.

160. Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 30.161. Ibid ., 14.162. Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," 79.163 . Bernard Schnapper, "La repression du vagabondage et sa significa­

tion historique du XIVe au XVIIIe siecle," Revue Historique de DroitFrancais et Etranger 63 (1985): 145; Francois Martineau, Pripons,gueux et loubards: une histoire de la delinquance en France de 1750 anos jours (Paris: J. C. Lattes, 1986), 42; Andre Abbiateci, Crimes etcriminalite en France sous l'Ancien Regime, I7e-18e siecles (Paris: A.Colin, 1971).

164 . David Mayall, "Egyptians and Vagabonds : Representations of theGypsy in Early Modern Official and Rogue Literature," Immigrantsand Minorities 16 (1997): 59-60.

165. Barbara Beckerman Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief in Sixteenth­Century Toulouse," Historical Reflections 17 (1991): 277; on thespread of migration see also Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 159 .

166. Geremek, The Marqins ofSociety, 29.167. Ibid., 38.168. Cohen, "Violence Control," 120.

198 NOTES

169 . Iutte, Poverty and Deviance, 165 .170 . Casparis, "The Swiss Mercenary System," 623 . On migration in the

late Middle Ages/early modern era, see Gauvard ((Degrace especial,')543; Schnapper, "La repression," 147.

171. Angus Fraser, The Gypsies (Oxford : Blackwell, 1993),95.172 . Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 205.173 . Bellamy, Crime and Public Order, 6. This information about

England could be applied to France.174. Ibid ., 75.175 . [utte, Poverty and Deviance, 181-82 .176 . Ibid ., 180.177. Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 8.178. Ibid ., 6.179 . Ibid ., 7.180 . Mary Elizabeth Perry, "Popular History of the Reign," in TheReign

of Louis XIV, eds. Andrew Lossky and Paul Sonnino (AtlanticHighlands, NJ: Humanities Press International, 1991),47.

181. Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 97 .182 . Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 165 .183 . Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 97.184 . Ibid ., 99.185 . Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 165.186 . Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," 77.187 . Geremek, TheMatginsofSociety, 130 .188. Ibid., 167.189 . Ibid ., 193-94.190 . Ibid., 35, 39.191. Ibid., 40.192 . Ibid., 131.193 . Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," 72.194 . Garnot, Crime et justice, 84-85.195 . Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 131.196 . Parisian thieves could be compared to prerevolutionary Russian peas­

ants. Most were not proprietors of commune land but received allot­ments according to a "moral economy," depending on the numberof sons, roughly correlated to the size family the peasant needed tofeed.

197 . Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," 69 .198 . Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 86.199 . Coopland, "Crime and Punishment in Paris," 73.200. Geremek, TheMatgins ofSociety, 107 .201. Ibid ., 108.202 . Ibid .

NOTES

203 . Ibid ., 129.204. Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 123 .205 . Ibid ., 170.206 . Ibid ., 169.207 . Gonthier, Delinquance, 26-27 .208 . Elias, The History ofManners, 198.209. Geremek, The Mar;ginsofSociety, 131.210 . Gonthier, La chdtiment du crime, 178 .

CHAPTER 4

199

1. Herodotus, The Histories (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1998),61.

2. Robin W. Winks, Crane Brinton, John B. Christopher, and RobertWolff, A History of Civilization: Prehistory to the Present (UpperSaddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1996) ,233.

3. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, "Motionless History," Social ScienceHistory 1, no . 2 (1977) : 116-17.

4. Ibid ., 123.5. Fernand Braudel, The Identity of France, 2 vols. (New York:

HarperCollins, 1986-90),2: 238.6. Talcott Parsons, The Structure of Social Action: A Study in Social

Theory with Special Reference to a Group ofRecent European Writers(Glencoe, IL: Free Press, 1949), 111.

7. Samuel K. Cohn Jr., introduction to The Black Death and theTransformation of the West by David Herlihy (Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 1997),5. The similarities between AIDSand the plague have been highlighted by noting that AIDS is theonly epidemic to destroy as many people as the BlackDeath, approx­imately forty million. "AIDS Set to Surpass the BlackDeath as WorstPandemic," New York Times on the Web, January 25,2002.

8. The relationship between globalization and spread of pandemic dis­ease can be seen in post-Soviet Russia. The spread ofvenereal disease,AIDS included, was due to Russia's openness to the outside world ."Russia Is Experiencing the Downside of Globalization and PuttingMuch of the Rest of the World at Risk," Boston Globe, February 10,2002 .

9. Braudel, The Identity ofFrance, 2: 420 .10. Yves Renouar, "The Black Death as a Major Event in World

History," in The Black Death: A Turning Point in History? ed.William M. Bowsky (Huntington, NY: Krieger, 1978),27.

200 NOT E S

II . Giovanni Boccaccio, "Plagu e in Florence : A Literary Description," inBowsky, The Black Death, 8 .

12. Ibid ., II.13. Agnolo di Tura del Grasso, "The Plague in Siena: An Italian

Chronicle," in Bowsky, The Black Death, 14.14. The ancient residents of Kiev were fond of hot baths , which fasci­

nated observers. The tradition continued in late medieval and earlymodern Russia, though the streets of major Russian cities were asdirty as those in Europe .

15. Norbert Elias, The History ofManners, The Civiliz ing Process, vol. I(New York: Pantheon, 1982 ),65.

16. Ibid ., 69.17. Jean-Noel Biraben, Les hommes et la peste en France et dans les pays

europeens et mediterraneens, 2 vols. (Paris: Mouton, 1975-76), 1:147.

18. Jean Delumeau and Yves Lequin, Les malheurs des temps: bistoire desfleau» et des calamites en France (Paris: Larousse, 1987), 199.

19. Biraben, Les hommes et la peste, 1: 139 .20. David Mayall, "Egyptians and Vagabonds : Representations of the

Gypsy in Early Modern Official and Rogue Literature," Immigrantsand Minorities 16 (1997): 61.

21. Brandel , The Identity ofFrance, 2: 157 .22 . Birabcn, Les hommes et la peste, 1: 23 .23 . Stuart Flexner and Doris Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide to History

(New York: Quill, 2000), 61.24 . Biraben, Leshommes et la peste, 1: 23 .25 . Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 10-11 .26 . Ibid., 11.27. Ibid ., 28-29 .28 . Ibid ., 23 .29 . Ibid ., 30.30 . Elisabeth Carpentier, "The Plague as a Recurrent Phenomenon," in

Bowsky, The Black Death, 35 .31. Robert H . Pollitzer, Plagu e (Geneva: World Health Organization,

1954), 12. On the plague during the reign of Justinian see alsoBiraben, Leshommes et la peste, 1: 25.

32 . Flcxner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 37 .33 . Ibid ., 35.34. Carpentier, "The Plague as a Recurrent Phenomenon," 35.35. Biraben, Les hommes et la peste, 1: 25 , On the spread of bubonic

plague in history, see also Ruth Oratz, "The Plague: ChangingNotions of Contagion: London 1665-Marseille 1720," Synthesis 2(1977): 5.

36. Pollitzcr, Plague, II.

NOT ES 201

37. Carpentier, "The Plague as a Recurrent Phenomenon," 36. Recentresearch shows that what was called the Justinian plague (541-767CE) affected all of Europe . Daniel Del Castillo , "A Long -IgnoredPlague Gets Its Due ," Chronicle of Higher Education, February 15,2002.

38. Le Roy Ladurie, "Motionless History," 124.39. William H . McNeill, Plagues and Peoples (Garden City, NY: Anchor/

Doubleday, 1976 ), 151.40 . Flcxner and Flcxncr, The Pessimist's Guide, 47.41 . Philip Ziegler, The Black Death (New York: Harper and Row, 1969),

15.42. Renouar, "The Black Death," 25 ; see also Birabcn, Leshommeset la

peste, 1: 49 .43 . Linda Altman, Plague and Pestilence: A History of Infectious Disease

(Springfield, NJ: Enslow, 1998), 19.44 . Monique Lucenet, Les grandes pestes en France (Paris: Aubier

Monraigne, 1985), 21; Flexner and Flcxner, The Pessimist's Guide,48 .

45 . Lucenet, Lesgrandes pestes, 16; Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist'sGu ide, 47

46 . Ncithard BuIst, "La lutte contre la peste noire en France(1348-debut XVle sieclc)," Bulletin d'Information de la Societe deDemoqraplaie Historique (1983): 34 .

47. George Vernadsky, A History of Russia, vol. 3, The Mongols andRussia (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1953),213; see also211 .

48 . John B. Henneman Jr., "France: A Fiscal and Constitutional Crisis,"in Bowsky, The Black Death, 87 .

49 . Renouar, "The Black Death ," 33.50. Pierre Chaunu, La mort it Paris: X VIe, XVlIe et XVIIIe siecles(Paris:

Fayard, 1978), 184.51. Maurice Berthc, Famines et epidemies dans lescampagnes navarraises

it la fin du Moyen Age, 2 vols. (Paris: S.F.I.E.D, 1984),2: 315 .52. Delumeau and Lcquin, Les malheurs, 141.53. Ibid ., 198 .54 . Carpentier, "The Plague as a Recurrent Phenomenon," 37.55. Ziegler, The Black Death, 64 ; on the French perception, see Claude

Gauvard, «Degrace especial": crime, etat et societe en France it la findu Moyen Age (Paris: Sorbonne, 1991 ),217.

56. Claude Gauvard, "Fear of Crime in Late Medieval France," inMedieval Crime and Social Control, eds. Barbara A. Hanawalt andDavid Wallace (Minneapolis: University ofMinnesota Press, 1999), I .

57 . Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 47.

202 NOTE S

58. Carpentier, "The Plague as a Recurrent Phenomenon," 37; Flexnerand Flexner, The Pessimist'sGuide, 47 .

59. Ziegler, The Black Death, 227.60. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 48 .61. Herlihy, The Black Death, 19 .62. Ibid ., 31.63. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 47.64 . Altman, Plague and Pestilence, 201.65 . Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist'sGuide, 48 .66 . "The Kosciuszko Chair of Polish Studies," Miller Center of Public

Affairs, University of Virginia, Bulletin 1 (Fall 2001) : 40 . Othernature events could lead to devastation, for example, locusts, whichsince ancient times were a danger to crops, dooming many people tostarvation. An 1875 swarm in the United States was recorded as"1,800 miles long and 110 miles wide, equaling the combined areaof Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, NewHampshire, New Jersey, New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island andVermont ." Carol Kaesuk Yoon, "Looking Back at the Days of theLocust," New York Times on the Web, April 23, 2002 .

67 . The ratio ofdeaths in battle and disease and starvation can be seen inthe Congo, where it could compare to France during the HundredYears War. Only a small proportion died because of the violence. Thegreat majority were victims of starvation and disease. BarbaraCrossette, "War Adds 1.7 Million Deaths in Eastern Congo, StudyFinds," New York Times, June 9, 2000.

68. Henneman, "France," 86.69. Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs, 198-99.70. Rcnouar, "The Black Death," 27.71. Ziegler, The Black Death, 64 .72. Braudel, The Identity of France, 2: 157. On mortality during the

Black Death in France see also Delumeau and Lequin, Lesmalheurs,188-89.

73. Lucenet, Lesgrandes pestes, 92 .74. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist'sGuide, 48 .75. Bronislaw Geremek, The Margins of Society in Late Medieval Paris

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987),31. Pandemic dis­eases can affect economic performance even in modern times. Thespread ofAIDS and other infectious diseasesin the former USSR andAfrica is a good example. A CIA prediction for 2015 stated, "AIDSand such associated diseases as TB will have a destructive impact onfamilies and society. In some Africancountries, average life-spanswillbe reduced by as much as 30 to 40 years, generating more than 40million orphans and contributing to poverty, crime, and instability.AIDS, other diseases, and health problems will hurt prospects for

NOTES 203

transition to democratic regimes as they undermine civil society,hamper the evolution of sound political and economic institutions,and intensify the struggle for power and resources." Global Trends2015: A Dialogue about the Future with Nongovernment Experts,Publication of the National Intelligence Council, 2000, 24 (Internetversion). Regarding the devastating implications of AIDS for the for­mer USSR, see also Abigail Zuger, "Infectious Diseases Rising Againin Russia," New York Times on the Web, December 5, 2000.

76. Anthony Sutcliffe, Paris:An Architectural History (New Haven, CT:Yale University Press, 1993),3.

77. Chaunu, La mort Ii Paris, 184-85.78. D. Bourrouilh and B. Cheronnet, "A propos de la peste en Beam

(1368-1652)," Revue de Pau et du Bearn 15 (1988): 45 .79. Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheu rs, 10 .80. Carol L. Loat, "Gender and Work in Sixteenth-Century Paris," PhD

diss., University of Colorado, 1993,2.81. Le Roy Ladurie, "Motionless History," 124 .82. Ibid ., 127.83. Gauvard, "Fear of Crime," 21.84. Herlihy, TheBlack Death, 6485 . Gauvard, "Fear of Crime," 21.86 . Berthe, Famines et epidemies, 324 , 353 .87 . Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs, 199 .88. Boccaccio, "Plague in Florence," 10.89. PavelA. Florensky, Sobranie Sochenenii, 4 vols. (Paris: YMCA, 1985) .90 . Renouar, "The Black Death ," 30.91. Herl ihy, TheBlack Death, 65 .92 . Flexner and Flexner, ThePessimist'sGuide, 48 .93. Leah Ot is, "Nisi in Postribulo : Prostitution in Langedoc from the

Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century," PhD diss., Columbia University,1980,100.

94 . S. H . Cuttler, TheLaw ofTreason and Treason Trials in Later MedievalFrance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), 154.

95 . See, for example, the wife of Edward II, "Edward II ," EncyclopediaBritannica Online.

96 . Claude Fouret, "Douai et Ie XVIe siecle: une sociabilite de l'agres­sion," Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 34 (January-March1987): 18.

97 . J. L. Flandrin, "Repression and Change in the Sexual Life of YoungPeople in Medieval and Early Modern Times," in Family andSexuality in French History, cds. Robert Wheaton and TamaraHaraven (Philadelphia: University of Philadelphia Press, 1980), 32.

98 . Joan Brace, "From Chattel to Person: Martinique, 1635," PlantationSociety 1 (April 1983) : 65.

204 NO T ES

99 . Elias, The History ofManners, 177 .100 . Erich Goode, "Pornography," in Social Deviance, ed . Erich Goode

(Boston : Allyn and Bacon, 1996 ),263.101. Richard Lewinsohn, A History of Sex ual Customs (New York: Bell,

1958 ),6-7.102. Most people had little shame performing urination and defecation,

so they did not hesitate to engage in sex in the presence ofa stranger,behavior seen as trul y uncivilized by Herodotus (H istories, 89) .

103 . Herodotus, Histories, 88 .104. Otis, "Nisi in postribulo," 21.105. Soviet society with its marginal role of money was structurally similar

to feudal Europe. The sexual culture had features of CarolingianFrance . Sex life was quite promiscuous in the late years ofBrezhnev'sregime , but there were few prostitutes. Most women who engaged inpromi scuous sex (bliadstvo) did so for reasons such as enjoyment ofsex, boredom, or social protest. A popular Soviet joke/proverbmakes the difference clear: "Prostitution is a profession, bliadstvois acall." On sexuality in Soviet and post-Soviet Russia, see Dmitr yShlapenrokh, "Making Love in Yeltsin's Russia: A Case of 'De­Medicalization ' and 'De-Normali zation .?' Crime, Law, and SocialChang es 39 (2003): 117-62.

106. Lewinsohn, A H istory ofSexual Customs, 143 .107. This practice can be seen among primates . Presumably it would

ensure natural selection .108. The notion of sex in which all males had sexual access to all females

as a mor e advanced form of sexual organization has been questionedby some scholars. Friedrich Engels, for example, in The Origin oftheFamily, Private Property, and the State, in the Light of the R esearchesof Lewis H. MOllJan (London : Lewis and Wishart, 1943 ) suggestedthat promiscuity was the most ancient form of sexual relationship .

109. Jacques Rossiaud, "Prostitution, jeunesse et societe dans les villes dusud-est au XVe sieclc," Annales 31, no . 2 (1976): 289-325 .

110 . There were indications that prostitutes could be seen in French citiesin the sixteenth century. See Francois Martineau, Fripons, gueux etlouhards: une histoire de la delinquance en France de 1750 it nos jours(Paris: J. C. Latte s, 1986 ), 100.

111. The UN troops in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, in 1991 were compara­tively well disciplined . Yet their presence led to a dramatic increase inprostitution. In 1991 there were six thousand prostitutes in the city;in 1992 there were twenty thousand . A. Betts Feth erston, "Voicesfrom War Zones: Impl ications for Training, " in A Future fo rPeacekeeping? ed . Edward Moxon-Browne (New York : Macmillan,1998 ),167.

NOTES 205

112. Jeffrey Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation: Minority Groupsin the Middle Ages (London : Routledge, 1991),116.

113. Barbara Beckerman Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief in Sixteenth-Century Toulouse," Historical Reflections 17 (1991): 277 .

114. Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 117 .115 . Gerernek, The Ma1lJins ofSociety, 215.116. Ibid ., 216; Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 117 .117. Jacques Rossiaud, " La prostitution dans les villes francaises du XVe

siecle," Communications 35 (1982): 290-91.118. Gcrcmck, The Ma1lJins ofSociety, 226 .119. Ibid ., 231120. Jacques Rossiaud, "Prostitution, Youth, and Society in the Towns of

Southeastern France in the Fifteenth Century," in Deviants and theAbandoned in French Society: Selectionsfrom the Annates: Economies,Societies, Civilisations IV, eds . Robert Forster and Orest A. Ranum(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978), 3-4.

121. Otis, "Nisi in postribule," 69.122. Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 116.123. Ibid .; Rossiaud, "La prostitution," 292 .124. Fouret, "Douai," 18.125. Rossiaud, "La prostitution," 5.126. These authorities were not unique in their desire to make money on

prostitutes: see "Nevada Considers Taxing Its Prostitutes," NeJVYork Times, February 26,2003.

127. Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 124.128. Flandrin, "Repression and Change," 31.129 . Ibid ., 127 .130 . Ibid ., 125 .131. One might add that drugs such as hashish had been known since the

Middle Ages. Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs, 142 .132. Gauvard, «Degrace especial,"575; On the spread ofconcubinage, see

also Nicole Gonthier, Delinquance, justice et societe dans le lyonnaismedieval: de la fin du XlIIe siecle au debut du XVle siecle (Paris :Editions Arguments, 1993), 163.

133. Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 118.134. Gonthier, Delinquance, 164; On concubinage among clerics, see also

Jacques Chiffoleau, Les justices du pape: delinouance et criminalitedans la region d'Avignon au quatorziime siecle (Paris : Sorbonne,1984), 176.

135. David Potter, '''Rigueur de Justice : Crime, Murder and the Law inPicardy, Fifteenth to Sixteenth Centuries," French History II, no . 3(1997): 270.

136. Nicole Gonthier, La chdtiment du crime au Moyen Age: XIIe-XVlesiecles(Rennes: Presses Universitaircs de Rennes, 1998), 182 .

206 NOT ES

137 . Gauvard, «Degrace especial,'l816 .138 . Gauvard, "Fear of Crime," 1.139 . Ernie Bradford, The Battle for the West: Thermopylae (New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1980),76.140. Ibid ., 64.141. Simon Pepper, "Up Close and Personal," Times Literary Supplement,

October 26, 2001,36.142 . Robert Muchembled, La violence au village: sociabiliti et comporte­

ments populaires en Artois du Xle au XVIIe sieclc (Turnhout,Belgium: Brepols, 1984),322.

143 . Goode, "Rape," 294 .144 . Cuttler, TheLaw ofTreason, 147.145. Elias, TheHistory ofManners, 118 .146 . Ibid ., 144 .147. Madeleine Lazard, Pierre de Bourdeille, Seigneur de Brantome (Paris:

Fayard, 1995) ,220.148. Antony Beevor, "They Raped Every German Female from Eight to

80," Guardian, May 1, 2002.149 . Clifford Coonan, "Interview- Book on Red Army Rapes in Berlin

Angers Russians," Reuters, June 4, 2002 .150 . Orner Bartov, "The Last Battle," Times Literary Supplement, June

14,2002.151. Beevor, "They Raped Every German Female."152 . Marc Lacey,"War Is Still a Wayof Life for Congo," New 'fork Times,

November 21, 2002. In Chechnya, soldiers mortally wounded fif­teen-year-old Arninat. A relative saw "half-dressed" Russian officers"lying on Np of Arninat. She was covered in blood from the bulletwounds. Another soldier shouted, 'Hurry up, Kolya, while she's stillwarm!'" Krystyna Kurcxab-Redlich, "Torture and Rape Stalk theStreets ofChechnya," Observer, October 27 , 2002 .

153 . Flexner and Flexner, ThePessimist'sGuide, 49 .154 . Many rapists assumed that violence was essential to sexual gratifica­

tion . These views were common in military culture, especially ifmoral restraint and fear of punishment were removed . This was, forexample, the casewith the Soviet soldiers who engaged in rape spreesafter the invasion of Germany. For most, rape was a way of satisfyingsexual desire and humiliating and punishing the defeated enemy.Quite a few were convinced that the women enjoyed the rape andcould receive sexual gratification that way. One soldier recalled hissexual exploits: "They all lifted their skirts for us and lay on the bed."Fetherston, "Voices from Warzones," 165.

155 . Rossiaud "La prostitution," 75.156. Ibid ., 293 .

NOTES 207

157. Ibid ., 77.158 . Ibid., 293 .159. Gonthier, Delinquance, 313 .160 . Michael Ross, "It's Time for Me to Die," Whole Earth 98 (1999): 3.161. Goode, "Rape," 285 .162. Rossiaud, "La prostitution," 294 .163. Ibid ., 297-98.164. Ibid ., 293 .165 . Flandrin, "Repression and Change," 31.166. Encyclopedia Britannica, "Saturn."167. Rossiaud, "La prostitution," 75-76.168. Ibid ., 7.169. Diana Scully and Joseph Marolla, "Riding the Bull at Gilley's:

Convicted Rapists Describe the Rewards of Rape," in Goode, SocialDeviance, 298.

170. Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 39.171. Ibid., 16; on the spread ofgroup rape, see also Gonthier, Delinquance,

139 .172. Rossiaud, "Prostitution," 6.173. Richards, Sex, Dissidence, and Damnation, 39 .174. Chiffoleau, Lesjustices du pape, 123.175. Etienne van der Walle, "Motivations and Technology in the Decline

of French Fertility," in Family and Sexuality in French History, eds.Robert Wheaton and Tamara K. Haraven (Philadelphia: Universityof Pennsylvania Press, 1980), 147 .

176 . Natalie Zemon Davis, Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Talesand TheirTellers in Sixteenth-Century France (Stanford, CA: StanfordUniversity Press, 1987),85.

177. David Rock, Argentina, 1516-1987: From Spanish Colonization toAlfonsin (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987), 18.

178 . Le Roy Ladurie, "Motionless History," 124 .179. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist'sGuide, 59.180. Robert Benoit, "La syphilisala fin du XVle siecle, d'apres les cours

du professeur Jean Riolan, de la Faculte de Medecine de Paris,"Histoire dessciences medicales 32, no . I (1998): 40 .

181. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist'sGuide, 59.182 . Laura Guidi, "Prostitute e carcerate a napoli: alcune indagini tra fine

800 e inizio 900," Memoria: Rivista di Storia delle Donne 4 (1982);Giovanna Fiume, "Le patenti di infamia: morale sessuale e igienesociale nella sicilia dell'ottocento," Memoria : Revista di Storia delleDonne 17 (1986) .

183 . J. R. Hale, "The Soldiers in Germanic Graphic Art," in Art andHistory: Images and Their Meaning, eds. Robert 1. Rotberg and

208 NO T ES

Theodore K. Rabb (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986),103 .

184. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 59 .185. Claude Quetel, "Syphilis et politiques de sante a l'epoque moderne,"

Histoire, Economic et Societe 3, no . 4 (1984): 543-44; on the spreadof syphilis see also Benoit, "La syphilis," 39.

186 . Howard M. Smith, "The Introduction of Venereal Disease intoTahiti: A Re-Examination," Journal of Pacific H istory 10, no . I(1975) : 39 ; on the beginning of the spread of syphilis, see alsoDelumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs, 240 .

187. Flexner and Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide, 59 .

CHAPTER 5

1. Lynn Martin, "Jesuit Encounters with Rural France in the SixteenthCentury," Australian Journal of French Studies 18, no . 3 (1981):207; see also Jacques Lorgnicr and Renee Martinage, "L'activitejudiciaire de la Marechaussee de Flandrcs (1679- 1790)," R evue duNord 61, no . 242 (1979) : 593.

2. Yves Berce, History ofPeasant Revolts: The Social Origins of Rebellionin Early Modern France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,1990),99.

3. Robert Muchembled, "Anthropologie de la violence dans la Francemoderne (XVe- XVIIIe sieclc)," Revue de Synthese 1 (January-March198 7) : 31-55; James B. Collins, "State Building in Early ModernEurope," Modern A sian Studies31, no. 3 (1997): 624.

4. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, The Royal French State, 1460-1610(Oxford: Blackwell, 1994), 153.

5. Robert Muchembled, La violence au village: sociahilitie et comporte­

ments populaires en A rtois du Xle au XVlIe siecle (Turnhout ,Belgium: Brepols, 1984).

6. Robert Muchemblcd, L'iniention de Phomme moderne: sensibilites,moeurs et comportements collectifs sous Pancien regime (Paris: Fayard,1988),16.

7. Barbara Beckerman Davis, "Poverty and Poor Reliefin Seventeenth­Century Toulouse," Histor ical R eflections 17 (199 1): 270. BenoitGarnot, Crime et j ustice aux XVIIe et XVlIIe siecles (Paris: Imago,2000),78 .

8 . Claude Fou ret, "Douai et le XVIe siecle: une sociabilite de l'agrcs­sion," R evue d'histoire moderne et contemporains 34 (January-March1987): 11.

NOTES 209

9. Arlette [ouanna, "Les gentilshommes francais et leur role politiquedans la seconde moitie du XVIe sicclc ct au debut du XVIIe,"Pensiero Poltico 10, no . I (1977): 35.

10. Fouret, "Douai," 13; Benoit Garnot, "La perception des delinquantsen France du XIVe au XIXe siecle," Revue Historiqu e 296, no . 2(1996) : 350-51.

II . David Potter, "'Rigueur de Justice': Crime, Murder and the Law inPicardy, Fifteenth to Sixteenth Centuries," French History II, no . 3(1997): 288.

12 . Fouret, "Douai," 16.13 . Jaime Contreras, "Espagne et France au temps d'Henri IV: inquisi ­

teurs , morisques et brigands," Revue de Pau et du Bearn 17 (1990):36 .

14 . Fouret, "Douai," 9.15. Ibid., 9-10,30.16 . Potter, "Rigueur de justice," 277; Fouret, "Douai," 7-9, 27;

Bernard Schnapper, "La justice criminelle rendue par le Parlement deParis sous Ie regne de Francois I," Revue historiquede droit franfaiset etranger 52 , no . 2 (1974): 255,271.

17. J. J.Woltjer, "Violence during the Wars of Religion in France and theNetherlands: A Comparison," Nederlands Archief voorKerkgeschiedenis76, no . 1 (1996): 29 .

18. Ibid ., 31.19 . Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Noblesse de robe ."20 . Bronislaw Gcremck, The Margins of Society in Late Medieval Paris

(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), 127.21. Jcan Delumeau and Yves Lequin, Les malheurs des temps: bistoire des

fleaux et des calamites en France (Paris: Larousse, 1987), 195.22 . Roger Chartier, Figures de la gueuserie (Montalba, Paris:

Bibliotheque Bleue, 1982),92.23 . Fernand Braudcl, The Identity of France, 2 vols. (New York:

HarperCollins, 1986-90),2: 387.24 . Contreras, "Espagne et France," 37 .25 . Ib id., 34, 36-38 .26. Potter, "Rigueur de justice," 301.27 . Ibid ., 300.28. Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Callot, Jacques," http://search.eb

.com/ eb/ art icle-9018716 .29 . Jean Gallet, "En Bretagne, seigneurie et pouvoir militaire du XVIe au

XVlIIe sieclc," Revue historique desarmees1 (1985): 9 .30 . Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs, 258 .31. James B. Wood, The King Js Army: Warfare, Soldiers, and Societydur­

ing the Wars of Religion in France, 1562-1576 (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1996),227 (on troop criminal activity

210 NOTES

see p. 228); Jean-Pierre Babelon, Paris au XVIe siecle (Paris:Hachette, 1986), 183 .

32. R. J. Knecht, Renaissance Warrior and Patron: The Reign ofFrancisI (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 359 .

33 . Hilton L. Root, Peasants and King in BU1;gundy: AgrarianFoundation ofFrench Absolutism (Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress, 1987),210.

34 . Potter, "Rigueur de justice," 290, 295 .35. Berce, History, 10 .36 . Wood, The KingJsArmy, 44.37 . Raymond A. Mentzer [r ., "Organizational Endeavour and Charitable

Impulse in Sixteenth-Century France: The Care of ProtestantNimes," FrenchHistory 5, no . 1 (1991): 15 .

38 . Dominique Diner, "De l'epee ala croix: les soldats passes al'ombredes cloitres (fin XVIe-fin XVIIIe siecle)," Histoire, economie et societe9, no . 2 (1990): 172-73.

39. Robert Iutte, Poverty and Deviance in Early Modern Europe(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 187 .

40. Mentzer, "Organizational Endeavour," 14.41 . Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization: A History ofInsanity in

the Age of Reason, trans. Richard Howard (New York: Pantheon,1966),47.

42 . Knecht, Renaissance Warrior and Patron, 6, 359.43 . Ibid ., 357 .44 . Laure Chantrel, "Les notions de richesse et de travail dans la penice

economique francaise de la seconde moitie du XVIe et au debut duXVIle siecle," Journal ofMedieval and Renaissance Studies 25, no . 1(1995): 133.

45. R. J. Knecht, French Renaissance Monarchy: Francis I and Henry II(London: Longman, 1996),6.

46. Ibid ., 156.47 . Kristin Elizabeth Gaper, '''Comme leur propre enfant' : Adoption of

Children and Domestic Boundaries in Sixteenth and Seventeenth­Century Paris," PhD diss., Princeton University, 1992, 150 .

48 . Hilary Meg Bailon, "Architecture and Urbanism in Henri IV's Paris:The Place Royale, Place Dauphine, and Hospital St. Louis," PhDdiss., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1985, 192-93.

49 . Foucault, Madness and Civilization, 47 .50 . Babelon, Paris, 184.51. Fouret, "Douai," 10; on the economic situation, see also Leslie

Henry Goldsmith, "Poor Relief and Reform in Sixteenth-CenturyOrleans," PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1980;Schnapper "La justice criminelle," 21.

NOTES 211

52 . Alexander Cowan, Urban Europe, 1500-1700 (London: Arnold,1998),152.

53. Mentzer, "Organizational Endeavour," 15 .54. Goldsmith, "Poor Relief," 184 .55. Cowan, Urban Europe, 172.56. Quoted in Matthew Koch, "Poor Relief in Montauban, 1548 to

1629," in vol. 23 of Proceedings ofthe Annual Meeting ofthe WesternSocietyfor French History: Selections ofthe Annual Meeting, ed. BarryRothaus (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 1996),73.

57 . Goldsmith, "Poor Relief," 183.58. Cowan, Urban Europe, 176.59 . Karen Barkey, Bandits and Bureaucrats: The Ottoman Route to State

Centralization (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994), x.60 . Ibid ., 168 .61. On the role of slavery, including slaves as soldiers, see, e.g., Richard

Hellie, Slavery in Russia, 1450-1725 (Chicago: University ofChicago Press, 1982).

62 . Barkey, Bandits and Bureaucrats, 176 . The following quotationsfrom this source are cited by page number in text .

63. Fouret, "Douai," 11; on the spread of plague in sixteenth-centuryFrance, see also Annette Finley-Croswhite, Henry IVand the Towns:The Pursuit of Legitimacy in French Urban Society, 1589-1610(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 164.

64 . Koch, "Poor Reliefin Montauban," 73; Cowan, Urban Europe, 159.65 . Goldsmith, "Poor Relief," 35, 235 .66 . Muchemblcd, L'invention de l'homme moderne, 49 .67 . Cowan, Urban Europe, 189.68. Babelon, Paris, 286 .69 . Kristin Gager, '''Comme leur propre enfant' : Adoption of Children

and Domestic Boundaries in Sixteenth and Seventeenth CenturyParis," PhD diss., Princeton University, 1992, p. 156; PierreChaunu, La mort Ii Paris: XVIe, XVIIe et XVIIIe siecles (Paris:Fayard, 1978), 184.

70. Bailon, "Architecture," 188.71. Mentzer, "Organizational Endeavour," 4 .72 . Olivier Zeller, "L'espace et la famille aLyon aux XVIe et XVIIe sie-

cles," Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine 30(October-December 1983): 588-89 .

73. Delumeau and Lequin, Les malheurs, 260 .74. Ibid ., 274 .75. Babelon, Paris, 172.76 . Pierre Gregoire, "Les enjeux du souvenir collectif: evenemcnt et rep­

resentations historiques en Provence, XVII-XXe siecle," HistoricalPapers (1987): 70.

212 NOTES

77 . Bailon, "Architecture," 191.78 . Justin Stagl, "The Methodising of Travel in the 16th Century,"

History and Anthropology 4 (1990): 317 .79. Muchemblcd, L'invention de l'homme moderne, 61, 76, 79;

Muchembled, La violence, 324.80 . See Alain Couprie, "'Courtisanisme' et christianisme au XVIle sie­

cle," Dix-septieme Siecle 33, no. 4 (1981) : 372; Madeleine Lazard,Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantome (Paris: Fayard, 1995),223;Francois Martineau, Fripons, gueux et loubards: une histoire de ladelinquance en France de 1750 it nosjours (Paris: J. c. Lattes, 1986),101.

81. James R. Farr, Authority and Sexuality in Early Modern BU1;gundy(1550-1730) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995),65.

82 . Natalie Zemon Davis, Fiction in the Archives: Pardon Talesand TheirTellers in Sixteenth-Century France (Stanford, CA: StanfordUniversity Press, 1987),86.

83 . Emmanuel Lc Roy Ladurie, Carnival in Romans (New York: GeorgeBraziller, 1979),224.

84 . Muchembled, L'invention de l'homme moderne, 66 .85 . Bette Talvacchia, Taking Positions: On the Erotic in Renaissance

Culture (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999),199.86 . Fouret, "Douai," 17.87 . Barbara Beckerman Davis, "Reconstructing the Poor in Early

Sixteenth Century Toulouse," French History 7, no . 3 (1993): 281.88 . Delumeau and Lcquin, Les malheurs, 9; Joan Sherwood, "Treating

Syphilis: The Wetnurse as Technology in an Eighteenth-CenturyParisian Hospital," Journal of the History of Medicine and AlliedSciences 50, no . 3 (1995): 315.

89 . Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Medicine, History of," http://search.eb.com/eb/ article-911 031 .

90 . Goldsmith, "Poor Relief," 92 .91. Ibid ., 142, 145.92 . Encyclopedia Britannica Online, "Europe, History of," http://

search.eb .com/eb/ article-91 06072.93. Leah Otis, "Nisi in Postribulo: Prostitution in Langedoc from the

Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century," PhD diss., Columbia University,1980,95. The direct connection can be seen in post-Soviet Russia.In social arrangements the Soviet regime in many ways resembledpremodern society. A comparison between the Soviet regime and ori­ental despotism was made by Karl Wittfogel, Die OrientalischeDespotic: cine vn;gleichende Untersuchung totaler Macht (Koln,Berlin: Kiepenheuer and Witsch, 1962). Although for someobservers post-Soviet society is close to that of the Middle Ages, theearly modern era is the best analogy. Prostitution exploded, with at

NO T ES 213

least on e hundred thousand prostitutes in Moscow alone in 2002, upto 35 percent infected with HIY. Boston Globe, February 10, 2002 .

94 . Biraben, Les hommes at la pesteen France et dans lespays europeens et

mediterraneens(Paris : Mouton, 1975-76),2 : 38 .95 . Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 208-9.96 . Claude Quetcl, "Syphilis et politiques de sante a l'epoque rnoderne,"

Histoire, Economie et Societe3, no . 4 (1984) : 45 .97. Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 208.98. Ibid ., 55 I.99 . J. R. Hale, "The Soldiers in Germanic Graphic Art," in Art and

H istory: Images and Their Mean ing, eds . Rob ert 1. Rotberg andTheodore K. Rabb (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986),105 .

100 . Ibid ., 103 .101. Norbert Elias, The History ofManners, The Civilizing Process, vol. I

(New York: Pantheon, 1982),72.102 . Stuart Flexner and Doris Flexner, The Pessimist's Guide to History

(New York: Quill, 2000), 59.103 . EncyclopediaBritannica Online, "Francis 1," http://search.eb.com/

eb/art icle-9035120. On other possible other causes of Francis'sdeath, see Knecht, Renaissance Warrior and Patron, 545.

104 . Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 278-79; Babelon, Paris, 173-74.

105. Goldsmith, "Poor Relief," 146 .106. Quetel, "Syphilis," 544. One might add that infectious disease had

been connected in people's minds with spiritual pollution and there­fore with heresy. See Denis Crouzet, Lesguerriers de Dieu: la violenceau temps des troubles de religion vers 1525-vers 1610, 2 vols. (Seyssel:Champ Vallon, 1990), 1: 257.

107. Potter, "Rigueur de justice ," 292.108 . Le Roy Ladurie , Carnival in Romans, 224.109. Ib id., 224.110 . Ibid.111. Ibid .112 . Ibid., 177 .113 . J. L. Flandrin, "Repression and Change in the Sexual Life of Young

People in Medieval and Early Modern Times," in ~Family and

Sexuality in French History, eds. Robert Wheaton and Tamara K.Hareven (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1980),45;see also Fouret, "Douai," 12 .

114. Talvacchia, Taking Positions, 187.115 . Ibid., 175 .

214 NO TES

CHAPTER 6

1. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (New York: W. W. Norton, 1997), 71.2. Ibid., 72.3. Ibid., 121.4. Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Empire (Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press, 2000), 323 .5. Michael D. Slaven, "Scapegoating, Sexuality, and Theories of the

Body during the Parisian Fronds: A Reassessment of theMazarinades," PhD diss., West Virginia University, 1993, 30.

6. Louis Marin, Portrait of the K ing, trans. Martha Houle(Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1988), 14.

7. Karl Wegert, Popular Culture, Crime, and Social Control in 18th­Century Wiirttember;g(Stuttgart: Franz Steiner, 1994), 10.

8. Pierre Deyon, Le temps desprisons: essai sur l'histoire de la delinquanceet les origines du systeme pinitentiare (Villeneuve d'Ascq, France:Universite de Lille III, 1975), 20 .

9 . Richard Andrews, Of Law, Magistracy, and Crime in Old RegimeParis, 1735-1789, vol. 1, The System ofCriminal Justice (New York:Cambridge University Press, 1994), 395 .

10. Natalie Zemon Davis, Fiction in the A rchives: Pardon Talesand TheirTellers in Sixteenth Century France (Stanford, CA: StanfordUniversity Press, 1987),85 .

11. Ibid ., 86.12. Ibid . See also D. Ulrich, "Le statut des municipes d'apres les donnees

africaines," Revue historique de droit francais et itranger 50 (1972):402 .

13. Gerard Aubry, La jurisprudence criminelle du Chdtelet de Parissous leregne de Louis XVI (Paris: Librairie Generale de Droit et deJurisprudence, 1971), 54.

14. Ibid., 52.15. Wegert, Popular Culture, 102.16. Ibid ., 384 .17. Ibid ., 99 .18. Louis Chevalier, Classes laborieuseset classes dangereuses Ii Paris pen­

dant la premiere moitie du XIXe slide (Paris: PIon, 1958),212.19. The state at the same time tried to minimize private violence and was

engaged in the continuous disarmament of the population. Andrews,System ofCriminal Justice, 40 .

20 . Robert Anchcl, Crimes et chdtiments au XVlIIe siecle(Paris: LibrairieAcadernique Perrin, 1933), 183 .

21. Wegert, Popular Culture, 105 .22. Ibid ., 108 .

NO TES 215

23 . Francois Martineau, Fripons, gueux et loubards: une histoire de ladilinquance en France de 1750 anosjours (Paris: J. C. Lattes, 1986),242.

24. James R. Farr, Authority and Sexuality in Early Modern BUJ;!]undy(1550-1730) (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 128.

25. Duane Anderson, "The Legal History ofthe Reign," in The Reign ofLouis XIV: Essays in Celebration ofAndrew Lossky, ed. Paul Sonnino(Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities, 1991),75-76.

26 . Ibid ., 82 .27. D. Ulrich, "La repression en Bourgogne au XVIIIe siecle," Revue

historique de droit franfais et etranger 50 (1972): 401-2.28 . Claude C. Strugill, VOJ;!]anisation et l'administration de la

marechaussee et de la justice prevotale dans la France des Bourbons:1720-1730 (Paris: Service Historique de I'Arrneede Terre, 1981),6.

29. Pascal Brouillet, "L'organisation de la marechaussee dans la general­ite de Paris ala fin de l'Ancien Regime," Revue historique desarmees4 (1998): 10.

30. Davis, Fiction in the Archives, 10.31. Ibid ., 389.32. [urgcn Habermas, The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Twelve

Lectures (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1987),243.33. Hilton 1. Root, Peasants and King in BUJ;!]undy: Agrarian

Foundations ofFrenchAbsolutism (Berkeley: University of CaliforniaPress, 1987),41.

34. Barbara Beckerman Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief in Sixteenth­Century Toulouse," H istorical Reflections 17 (1991): 101 .

35. Mary Elizabeth Perry, "Popular History ofthe Reign," in The Reignof Louis XIV: Essays in Celebration of Andrew Lossky, ed. PaulSonnino (Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities, 1991),48.

36. France was definitely not the first to be activelyinvolved in economiclife. The despots of Egypt and China engaged in wide managementof economic activities. Pitirim A. Sorokin, Man and Society inCalamity: The Effect of War, Revolution, Famine, Pestilence uponHuman Mind, Behavior, Social OJ;!]anization, and Cultural Life(New York: E. P. Dutton, 1963), 129.

37. This harshnesscould be testifiedto bycatastrophic faminessuch as thatofl693-94, which killed a tenth of the population and could be com­pared to any famine in totalitarian societies. Audrey Dorothea Devore,"Under Pressure: The Ministers of the State of Louis XIV, 1688 to1700," PhD diss., University ofSouthern California, 1979 ,7.

38. Andrews, System ofSocialJustice, 343-44.39. Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 89.40 . Ibid, 88.41. Perry, "Popular History of the Reign," 48 .

216 NOT ES

42. Martin S. Staum, Cabanis: Enlightenment and Medical Philosophy inthe French Revolution (Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press,1980), 1l0. See also Martineau, Fripons,gueuxetloubards, 101.

43 . Perry, "Popular History of the Reign," 49.44 . Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 212.45 . Ibid., 215 .46. Philadclphe Maurice Alhoy, Lesbagnes: histoire, types, moeurs, mysteres

(Paris: Havard, 1845),9.47. Angus Fraser, The Gypsies (Oxford: Blackwell, 1993), 145 .48 . Root, Peasants and King, 22 .49 . Andre Zysberg, "Les galeriens de Louis XIV," Histoire 98 (March

1987): 32; Perry, "Popular History of the Reign," 53 .50 . Bernard Durand, "Remarques sur la recidive en Roussillon au XVIIIe

sieclc," Revue historique de droit francais et etranger 63, no . 1(1995): 51.

51. Fraser, The Gypsies, 96 .52 . Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 101.53 . Ibid., 204 .54 . Monique Lucenet, Les grandes pestes en France (Paris: Aubier

Montaigne, 1985), 159-60.55 . Ibid ., 156 .56. Ibid., 164, 170.57. Dan iel Panzac, "Crime ou delit] La legislation sanitaire en Provence

au XVlIIe siecle," Revue historique 275, no. 1 (1986): 41.58. Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Carnival in Romans (New York: George

BraziIler, 1979),224.59. William Roosen, "Demographic History of the Reign," in The Reign

of Louis XIV: Essays in Celebration of Andrew Lossky, ed. PaulSonnino (Atlantic Highlands, NJ : Humanities, 1991), 14.

60 . Slaven, "Scapegoating, Sexuality, and Theories of the Body." Thedrive against prostitutes intensified in the sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies, but some French city legislation for their expulsion couldbe traced to the thirteenth century. Davis, "Poverty and PoorReliet~" 209 .

61. Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 188 .62 . Ibid .,211 .63 . Ibid ., 59 .64. Ibid., 210 .65 . Perry, "Popular History of the Reign," 48 .66 . Colin Jones, "Prostitution and the Ruling Class in Eighteenth­

Century Montpellier," History Workshop Journal 6 (1978): 8; see alsoPerry, "Popular History of the Reign," 53 .

67. Perry, "Popular History of the Reign," 51.68 . Ibid ., 53 .

NOTES 217

69. Jean-Louis Flandrin, Families in Former Times: Kinship, Householdand Sexuality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 132.

70. Perry, "Popular History of the Reign," 51.71. Jeffrey W. Merrick, The Desacralization ofthe French Monarchy in the

Eighteenth Century (Baton Rouge : Louisiana State University Press,1990),45.

72. Roosen, "Demographic History of the Reign," 15.73. Deyon, Le temps des prisons, 22; see also Anchel, Crimes et chdti-

ments, 5.74 . Aubry, La jurisprudence criminelle, 53 .75. Merrick, The Desacralization, 40.76. Robert Shackleton, "Censure and Censorship: Impediments to Free

Publication in the Age of Enlightenment," Library Chronicle of theUniversity ofTexasat Austin 6 (1973): 27 .

77 . Roger Chartier, On the Edge of the Cliff History, Language, andPractices, trans. Lydia G. Cochrane (Baltimore : Johns HopkinsUniversity Press, 1997),63.

78. Andrews, SystemofSocialJustice, 593 . See also Andrew Lossky, "TheAbsolutism of Louis XIV: Reality or Myth?" Canadian Journal ofHistory 19, no . 1 (1984): 2.

79 . Root, Peasants and King, 8.80 . Adrianna E. Bakos, Images ofKingship in Early Modern France: Louis

XI in Political Thought, 1560-1789 (London: Routledge, 1997),94.81. Ibid.82. Root, Peasantsand King, 176.83. Ibid .84. Arlette Lebigre, "Lcs prefers du roi contre les regions," Histoire 46

(1982): 15.85. Perry, "Popular History ofthe Reign," 51.86 . Andrew Lossky, Louis XIV and the French Monarchy (New

Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1994),33.87. "Even though the first regular postal service in France dated from

the reign of Louis XI (1461-1483), the post developed very slowlyas a public service under the ancien regime ." Susan DimlichBachrach, "The Feminization of the French Postal Service,1750-1914," PhD diss., University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1981,13. One could assume that the postal service started to resemble themodern system only in the eighteenth century.

88 . Irma Staza Majer, "The Notion ofSingularity : The Travel Journals ofMichel de Montaigne and Jean de Lcry," PhD diss., Johns HopkinsUniversity, 1982, 54.

89. Clark, State and Status, 168-69,342.90 . Prostitution actually increased in some French cities by the end of the

seventeenth century. Jones, "Prostitution and the Ruling Class," 7.

218 NO T ES

91 . Robert Berger, A Royal Passion: Louis XIV as Patron ofArchitecture(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994),85.

92 . Clark, State and Status, 337 .93 . Ibid ., 343 . The importance of self-control could be seen in increased

concern with masturbation and "excessive sexuality." Philippe Lejeune,"Le 'dangereux supplement' : lecture d'un aveu de Rousseau," Annales29, no. 4 (1974): 1015.

94. Berger, A Royal Passion, 4-5 .95 . Nanc y Nichols Barker, Brother to the Sun King: Philippe, Duke of

Orleans (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989) ,58-59.96 . Slaven, "Scapegoating," 84 .97 . Flandrin, Families in Former Times, 182 .98. Merrick, The Desacralization, 20 .99 . Mary Rosalie Fisher, "Models for Manners: Etiquette Books and

Etiquette in Nineteenth-Century France ," PhD diss., New YorkUniversity, 1992, 18,50.

100 . Calixte Hudemann-Simon, L'eta» et lespauvres: l'assistanceet la luttecontre la mendiciti dans lesquatre departements rbenans, 1794-1814(Sigmaringen, Germany: Jan Thorbecke, 1997), 161.

101. Annik Pardailhe-Galabrun, The Birth of Intimacy: Privacy andDomestic Life in Early Modern Paris (Philadelphia: University ofPennsylvania Press, 1991), 353 .

102. Roosen, "Demographic History of the Reign," 23 .103. Jean-Pierre Goubert, The Conquest ofWater: The Advent ofHealth in

the Industrial Age (Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press, 1989),91.

104 . Ibid .105 . Pardailhe-Galabrun, The Birth ofIntimacy, 141.106. Ibid .107. On toilets, see also Pierre-Denis Boudriot, "Essai sur l'ordure en

milieu urbain a l'epoque preindustrielle: boues, immondices etgadoue a Paris au XVIIIe siecle," Histoire, economicet societe 5, no . 4(1986): 520 .

108 . Goubert, The Conquest of Water, 92 .109. Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 206 ; Reynauld Abad, "Les tueries

aParis sous l'ancien regime ou pourquoi la capitale n'a pas ete doteed'abattoirs aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siecles," Histoire, economic et societe17, no . 4 (1998): 666 .

110 . On the drive for more hygienic behavior, see Annick Le Guerer andGeorges Vigarello, "La propriete au temps de Louis XIV," Histoire78 (1978 ): 1985 .

111. Annik Pardailhe-Galabrun, La naissance de l'intime: 3000 foyersparisiens XVIIe-XVIII siecles (Paris : Presses Universitairess deFrance, 1988), 1.

NOTES 219

112 . Berger, A Royal Passion, 73-74 .113. Ibid ., 73.114. Pardailhe-Galabrun, La naissancede Pintime, 215 .115 . Francoise Bayard, "Maniere d'habiter des financiers de la premier

rnoitie du XVIIe siecle," XVIIe siccle41, no . I (1989): 60.116. Berger, A Royal Passion, 9 .117 . Richard Grassby, The Idea of Capitalism before the Industrial

Revolution (Lanham, MD : Rowman and Littlefield, 1999), 50 .118. Steven L. Kaplan, Bread) Politics and the Political Economy in the

Reign ofLouis xr; 2 vols. (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1976), I: 5.119 . Ibid., I : 14.120 . Davis, "Poverty and Poor Relief," 101.121. Roosen, "Demographic History of the Reign," 22 .122 . On population increase, see, for example, Root, Peasants and King,

177.123 . Edward N. Luttwak, "Why Dutchmen Grew Taller," Times Literary

Supplement, May 25, 2001; Robert William Fogel and Stanley L.Engerman, Time on the Cross: The Economics of American NegroSlavery (Boston: Little, Brown , 1974).

124. Chartier, On the Edge ofthe Cliff, 139 .125. Fisher, "Models for Manners," 28-29, 33.126 . One might add that the idea that rulers should be self-restrained and

control their emotions was known to ancient rulers . See, for example,Norman Hammond, "The Road That Has No Ending," TimesLiterary Supplement, June 30, 2000, 5; Louis Auchincloss, FalseDawn: Women in the Age of Sun King (Garden City, NY: Anchor,1984),21.

127 . Stability also benefited criminals : "stationary" bandits had a "vestedinterest in providing public services, defending the residents of theterritory against roving band its, for example, or building roads ."Mancur Olson, "Why China Did Better," Times Literary Supplement,November 23, 2001, 26 .

128 . The strong despotic government as the only way to maintain orderwas apparently axiomatic for oriental rulers . See Irene Eber, ed .,Confucianism: The Dynamics of Tradition (New York: Macmillan,1986),33.

129. E. A. Rees, "Stalinism : The Primacy of Politics," in Politics) Society)and Stalinism in the USSR, ed . John Channon (New York:Macmillan, 1998),36.

130 . J. Arch Getty, "Pragmatists and Puritans: The Rise and Fall of theParty Control Commission," Carl Beck Papers in Russian and EastEuropean Studies 1208 (1997) : 3; Stephen White, "Stalinism and theGraphic Arts," in Politics, Society) and Stalinism in the USSR, ed.John Channon (New York: Macmillan, 1998), 125 .

220 NOTES

131. Geoffrey A. Hosking, "Cards on the Table, Comrades," TimesLiterary Supplement, January 28, 2000, 3. The machinery and per­sonnel of repression were trained long before the Great Purges dur­ing the Civil War. Executions became enterprises that not onlyterrified but also entertained the public . Even children enjoyed them.Izvestiia, February 8, 2001.

132 . Anne Applebaum, "Inside the Gulag," New YOrk Review of Books,June 15,2000,35.

133. Vadim Volkov, "The Concept of Kul'turnost' : Notes on the StalinistCivilizing Process," in Stalinism: New Directions, ed. SheilaFitzpatrick (London: Routledge, 1999),218,223.

134. White, "Stalinism and the Graphic Arts," 121. Awe was felt even byliberal intellectuals . They were hardly so naive as to believe Stalin waselected in the usual way, and they were aware of the span of the ter­ror. Yet they were in awe of Stalin. Valentin Lyubarsky, "SovietCivilization," Times Literary Supplement, September 7, 2001, 17.

135 . On nationalism in Stalin's Russia and his desire to identify withancient rulers, see David Brandenberger, National Bolshevism:Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern RussianNational Identity, 1931-1956 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress, 2002).

136. Applebaum, "Inside the Gulag," 33.137. "General Alexander Lebed's father, a factory worker, was twice ten

minutes late to work in 1937, for which he received a five-year campsentence." Ibid ., 35 .

138. Hardt and Negri, Empire, 330 .139 . Foucault and the postrnodernists who saw in "discourse" both

enslavement and liberation continued to be popular. Hardt andNegri saw even building empires in the Foucaultian way. "Imperialcommand is exercised no longer through the disciplinary modalitiesofthe modern state, but rather through the modalities ofbiopoliticalcontrol. These modalities have as their basis and their object a pro­ductive multitude that cannot be regimented and normalized, butmust nonetheless be governed, even in its autonomy" (Empire, 344).

140 . One recent episode might demonstrate the persistence of postmod­ernist paradigms in their Leftist reading . A 2002 study suggested thatblacks are more predisposed to certain diseases than whites. This dis­covery of biologists has been perceived as having racist implicationsand protested. "The American Sociological Association, for instance,said in a recent statement that 'race is a sociological construct,' andwarned of the 'danger of contributing to the popular conception ofrace as biological.'" Nicholas Wade, "Gene Study Identifies 5 MainHuman Populations," New York Times, December 20,2002.

NOTES 221

141. Michael Walzer, "Intellectuals, Social Classes, and Revolution," inDemocracy, Revolution, and History, ed . Theda Skocpol (Ithaca, NY:Cornell University Press, 1998), 136-37.

142. See, tor example, Hardt and Negri, Empire.143. Tony [udt, "Why the Cold War Worked," Nell' York Review ofBooks,

October 9, 1997 .144 . In this theory, the cold war was not a geopolitical conflict but rooted

in ideological differences between the USSR and the West . Theseviews were elaborated in the Black Book of Communism. For discus­sion, see, for example, Henri Astier, "Worse than Hitler?" TimesLiterary Supplement, September 1, 2000; Anne Applebaum, "AHistory of Horrors," New YOrk Review of Books, October 18, 2000;Martin Malia, "The Lesser Evil?" Times Literary Supplement, March27, 1998 ; Gabriel Schoenfeld, "Room at the Top," Wall StreetJournal, April 15, 1998 ; Arkedii Vaisberg, "Professora sorbonny vpoiskakh novogo 'svetlogo budushchego,''' Obshchaia Gazeta 8, no .4 (1998). Postmodernist intellectuals on the Left were also trashed;see, for example, John Hargreaves, "Michel Foucault and HisDefenders," Times Literary Supplement, January 25, 2002, 17; JamesDrake, "The Naming Disease," Times Literary Supplement,September 4, 1998 . On conservative views of Russian history and theLeft, see, for example, Richard Pipes, "Did the Peasants Really MakeRussia?" Times Literary Supplement, August 24, 2001 . These ideolo­gists lambasted the "ideological frenzy" to create harmonious soci­eties that cost countless millions and strike a "triumphalist note"seeing their ideological rival vanquished by the collapse of the USSR.Joseph Joffe, "The Worst of Times," Nell' York Times Book Review,December 21,1999,22.

145. Lynne Brindley, "American Influence in the Post-War World," TimesLiterary Supplement, August 31, 2001,15 .

146 . Robert D. Kaplan, The Coming Anarchy: Shattering the Dreams ofthePost-Cold War (New York: Random House, 2000). See also ChesterA. Crocker and Fen Osler Hampson with Pamela All, eds.,Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to InternationalConflict (Washington, DC : U.S. Institute of Peace, 1996). Onpeacekeeping, see Clement E. Adibe, "Learning from Failure inSomalia," in A Future for Peacekeeping? ed. Edward Moxon-Browne(New York: St. Martin's, 1998),144.

147. "How Great Are the Risks for Socioeconomic Collapse in Russia? AnInventory of Russian Problem Areas," Swedish Defense ResearchInstitute (May 1, 2000). On "chaos theory," see Jack Martin Balcer,The Persian Conquest of the Greeks, 545-450 B.C. (Konstanz,Germany: Universitatsverlag Konstanz, 1995),220.

222 NOTES

148 . "Russia's Solzhenitsyn Wants Death Penalty Restored," Reuters(April 29, 2001).

149 . Michael Dutton and Lee Tianfu, "Missing a Target? PolicingStrategies in the Period of Economic Reform," Crime andDelinquency 39, no . 3 (July 1993): 317 .

150 . Some people downplayed the importance of the events ofSeptember11. Sec, for example, Patrick E. Tyler, "The World Cries Uncle,"New York Times Book Review, September 22, 2002, 22.

151. On rather grave pictures of the crime problem in contemporary soci­ety, sec Robert Reiner, "Prisoners in the Cage," Times LiterarySupplement, January 25, 2002 .

152 . Maureen Dowd, "Plague on the Potomac," New York Times on theWeb, October 17, 2001; "Laws for an Epidemic," editorial,Washington Post, December 3, 2001.

153 . Postmodernists regarded activities of criminal, terrorist , and asocialgroups as a way of combating "hegemonic discourse." Because post­modernism was born in France, the attack against crime as "alterna­tive discourse" acquired a French reading, reinforced by the fact thatFrance was the strongest opponent of the Iraq war. The Frenchreciprocated, and their anti-American feelings spread in Europe .Henri Astier, "La maladie francaise," Times Literary Supplement,January 10,2003.

154 . Ideologies and discourse continue to be popular explanations of theevents. The attacks were often reduced to the influence of Islamicfundamental ists. The economic problems of this or that countrywere also explained by the variety of ideologies. Liah Greenfeld, TheSpirit ofCapitalism: Nationalism and Economic Growth (Cambridge,MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).

155 . On the vision of the role of the state at that time, sec, for example,Martin van Creveld, The Rise and Decline of the State (Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1999).

156 . Bill Keller, "Reagan's Son," New YOrk Times, January 26, 2003.157 . John Lewis Gaddis, "Setting Right a Dangerous World," Chronicle

ofHigher Education, January 11, 2002, BI0.158 . Robert Kagan, "Power and Weakness," Policy Review (June-July

2002).159 . William Safire, "Seizing Dictatorial Power," New YOrk Times,

November 15,2001; Safire, "Kangaroo Courts," New YOrk Times onthe Web, November 26 , 2001 ; Safirc, "Military Tribunal Modified,"New York Times on the Web, March 21, 2001; Safire, "The Great andUnwatched," New York Times on the Web, February 18, 2002 ;Elizabeth Bumiller and Katharine Q. Seelye, "Bush Defends WartimeCall for Tribunal," New York Times on the Web, December 5, 2001);Mike Allen, "Bush Defends Order for Wartime Tribunals,"

NOTES 223

Washington Post Online, November 20, 2001; Katharine Seelye,"Public Defender Denied for Suspected American Taliban," NewYork Times on the Web, June 26, 2002; John Markhoff-Schwartz,"Bush Administration to Propose System for Monitoring Internet,"New York Times, December 20, 2002; Dan Eggen , "FBI Seeks Dataon Foreign Students," Washington Post, December 25, 2002.

160 . Politika, October 25, 2001; Izvestiia, February 4,2003 .161. Satire, "Seizing Dictatorial Power."162 . Bob Herbert, "Bait and Switch," New York Times, January 30, 2003 .163 . William Safire, "Voices of Negativism," New York Times, December

6,2001.164 . Diane Squire, "Information Policy, Citizen Privacy, and 'National

Insecurity,'" IU Home Pages, February 28, 2003 .165 . Izvestiia, April 14,2001.166 . Kai T. Erikson, "The Functions of Social Deviance," in Social

Deviance, ed. Erich Goode (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1996), 136 .167. Recognition of the importance of a strong state as guarantor of secu­

rity changed the approach to modern authoritarian and totalitarianregimes. Some observers stated that China's economic success wasdue to its ability to preserve social and political stability by keepingthe controlling power of the party government. The VSSR, whichdid not preserve a strong state, collapsed and Russia was relegated toa third world country. Christopher Marsh, "Talking Behind TheirBack: Chinese Thoughts on Their Coming Collapse," NationalInterest, October 23, 2003.

168. Maureen Dowd, "Dances with Wolfewitz," New York Times, April 9,2003.

169. Michael Ignatieff, "Barbarians at the Gate?" New York Review ofBooks, February 28, 2002 .

170 . Keller, "Reagan's Son ."171. "The Worst-Case Scenario Arrives," New York Times, March 6,

2003.172 . "V.S.-Europe Iraq Dispute a Strategy Shift," New York Times, March

6,2003.173. R. Scott Appleby, "The Next Christendom," New York Times Book

Review, May 12,2002.174. Elaine Sciolino, "European V nion in the New Warning on Bush Go­

It-Alone War," New York Times, March 12,2003.175 . Paul Krugman, "Things to Come," New York Times, March 18,

2003. The economic problems could be aggravated by the spread ofcontagious disease. Thomas Crampton, "Asia Faces IncreasingIsolation Because of Deadly Disease," New York Times, April 9,2003 .

224 NOTES

176 . Thomas L. Friedman, "Hold Your Applause," New York Times, April9,2003 .

177 . Barry Gewen, "Thinking the Unthinkable," New York Times BookReview, September 15,2002, 12.

178 . Eric Lichtblau, "Republicans Want Terror Law Made Permanent,"New YOrk Times, April 9, 2003.

179. On the possible reverse of globalization, see Harold James, The EndofGlobalization: Lessonsfrom the Great Depression (Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 2002).

INDEX

absolute power, 12, 14, 15, 17,22,136,137-38,139,156,165, 180

absolutism and the law, 155-56absolutist state . See repressive stateAfrica, 78, 79, 80, 81,164,168,

171,171AIDS, 73,75, 137, 181anomie

assumptions of, 17characteristics of, 20, 25, 29, 45,

54,89,114classstructure and, 29,50,64,

134defined as, 7, 31, 131displacement and, 108marginalization of, 7significance of, 133violence and, 36

anomizationabsolutist governments and,

134-35biological consequences, 20capitalism and, 132-33class structure and, 134ideology and, 133increase of, 20, 21-22, 36, 37,

109,124injustice and, 19as mainstream, 131mercenaries and, 21societal breakdown and, 19-20,

132,134

views of, 17-19, 131-32arbitrary punishment, 144Arendt, Hannah, 2, 5-6army

mercenaries and, 37,44-45,56-58

and nobles, 44Augustus Caesar, 23, 24

Badefol, Seguin de, 47Baker, Keith, 12banditry

beggars and, 114-15clergy and, 112decline in, 107, 157disease and, 77famine and, 82incentives for, 39--40increase for, 36, 122mercenaries and, 61,112-13,

113-14nobles and, 42, 44, 110-11,

112, 134peasant uprisings and, 63politics of, 45--46soldiers and, 112, 113-14, 118students and, 53-54vagabonds and, 115

Bayley, David, 7beggars, 65 , 66, 67, 68, 69-70,

114-15,116,123,147Bellamy, John Williams, 40Belleville, Jeanne de, 47bin Ladin, Osama, 172

226 I ND EX

Black Deathbiological aspects of, 75death rates for, 82-83, 83-84,

106depopulation from, 84-85famine and, 82, 83-84globalization and, 75-76, 122handling of corpses, 84increase of crime during, 85-86lawful authority and, 85other diseases and, 82pan-European range of, 80-81psychological effects of, 83-84routes of, 81-82sanitation and, 76, 160similarities to AIDS, 75symptoms of, 83

Braude!, Fernand, 73, 75bribery, 51-52Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 171Bubonic plague. See Black Death;

plaguesburglary, 53, 63, 70, 71, 103Bush, George W., 177

Callot, Jacques, 112Cambodia, 154capitalism

anomization and, 132-33cohesiveness of, 7, 8development of, 30, 31, 33, 179extinction of, 145ideology of, 56, 154, 166, 168,

179state expansion and, 4trade and, 73, 74

capital punishment, 141, 142--44,144

Carpentier, Elisabeth, 80castes, 49,50,58,107Castiglione, Baldassare, 158censorship, 153Chandos, John, 56

Charles VII, 106children, concern for, 159China, 11, 13,36-37,135,

154,182Christians, 6, 63, 66, 140Church discipline, 152-53cities

crime and, 116-17economic regulation of, 164prostitution in, 93spread of plague , 123-24See also Paris

clergybanditry and, 112criminality of, 54-55decline in violent crime, 107democratization of sexuality, 95,

124moralizing of, 123

Clinton, William Jefferson, 10Cohen, Esther, 38Collins, James, 108communes, 15,64,145concubinage, 57, 72,95,99, 129,

158Congo, 59, 137contrainte solidaire , 145--46corporal punishment, 136-37Court ier, The (Castiglione), 158courts, 23, 71,141 ,156crime

acceptance of, 21,34,69decrease in, 107, 157-58defined as, 19increase of, 21, 29, 30, 63, 65,

95,119,134,137intolerance toward, 34nobles and, 43--44, 107normalcy of, 32-33opportunities for, 69,116pandemic diseases and, 85-86,

107-8prosecution of, 33-34

I ND EX 227

social controls and, 15,29,30,117,165

social divisions and, 32, 49spacial divisions of, 32-33urbanization and, 116white-collar, 42

Cuttler, S. H ., 46

Dark Ages, violence during, 24-25Davis, Natalie Zemon, 116debauchery, 88-89decapitation, 142defecation/urination regulation,

159-60De Revolutionibus orbium

coelestium (Copernicus), 5despotic regimes. See absolute

power ; repressive state; Statediseases. See Black Death; pandemic

diseasesdrug trafficking, 42drunkenness, 52, 53, 57, 123dueling, 37, 141, 157Durkheim, Emile, 7, 31, 32

economic regulations , 163-64Edward II (England), 48Edward III (England), 52-53Elias, Norbert, 49,73, 107, 110,

165elites. See noblesEngerman, Stanley L., 164Etienne, Charles, 130executioners, 144

Falstaff, John, 56family, importance of, 158famine

bandits and, 82Black Death and, 82, 83-84mercenaries and, 82spread of disease and, 77, 124

fixation, 146Florensky, Paul, 88

Fogel, Robert William, 164Foucault, Michel, 34, 73, 135,

168,179, 181-82Fouret, Claude, 109Fracasoro, Girolamo, 125France, liberalism of, 183Freud, Sigmund, 165Friedman, Thomas, 178Fukuyama, Francis, 171, 179

Gaddis, John Lewis, 174gemeinschaft society

customs of, 7, 8, 20, 26, 68, 98,119

erosion of, 30, 133, 134,180-81

military and, 26, 44,56patriarchy and, 86urban influence on, 68

gesellschaft society, 7, 8,133, 180globalization, 79, 80,174,177,

179Goldsmith, Leslie, 116-17, 123Gonthier, Nicole, 49Gorbachev, Mikhail, 169, 171Got'e, Iurii, 182Greece, 23 , 30, 64, 80, 97, 105,

106Gurr, Ted Robert, 3gypsies, 67,148-49

Henri II (France), 141Henry IV (England), 116, 163Herzen, Alexander, 179highway robbery, 42, 47-48, 49,

57,58,72Hobbes, Thomas, 138-39, 178-79

Leviathan, 175Hobbesian state, 138, 139, 164,

175,179,182homicide,36,38,52,109,142hunger, 14, 163-64

See also famineHussein, Saddam, 178

228 INDEX

hygienebathing and, 77eating utensils and, 77improvements in, 162laws to enforce, 74rules of 73,132,159venereal disease and, 105

infanticide, 103-4, 141-42

Jean 11 (France), 48Jews, 63,66, 110, 140Johnson, Chalmers, 3

Kagan, Robert, 175Keller, Bill, 174, 177kings

corruption and, 52-53divinity of, 139-40legitimization of, 12pardons and, 144protection of subjects, 155, 156

knightsemergence of, 25-26hunting and, 28-29solidarity among, 26violence and, 26-27, 27-28, 29

Knowles, Robert, 56

lawsabsolutism and, 155-56Black Death and, 85bureaucracy and, 51hygiene and, 74impartiality of, 33-34men/women recognition, 52sexuality and, 149-52as societal controls, 73-74

legitimization of rulers, 12-14Lenin, Vladimir, 3, 174LeRoy Ladurie, Emmanuel, 75, 80,

85, 105, 130, 149Leviathan (Hobbes), 175looting, 132

Lossky, Andrew, 157Louis XIlI (France), 150Louis XIV (France), 151, 152, 157,

159,161,162,168,174Louis XV (France), 158

Man and Society in Calamity(Sorokin),8-9

Marx, Karl, 21,73McVeigh, Timothy, 176mercenanes

anomization and, 21as army, 37, 56-58banditry and, 112-13, 113-14brutality of, 59-60cost of 56decrease in violence, 156discipline of, 60-61famine and, 82gemeinschaft culture and, 56habits of 57highway robbery and, 57incentives for, 39-40, 57-58,

58-59increase in, 58nobles and, 58organization of, 61-63origins of, 55-56popularity of, 58prostitution and, 93sense of displacement and,

108-9syphilis and, 105threats to public, 57weapons availability, 38

middle class, 12-13conflicts and, 29crime and, 42, 43, 101democratic tradition of, 14economic weakness of, 12-13,

14legalistic culture of, 14, 110power of, 133

I ND EX 229

values of, 32,134,181,183migration

increase of violence, 35, 119-20spread of disease, 122, 134, 159

Moore, R. 1., 140murder, 20, 24, 28, 29 , 30, 33,46,

47,53,54,59,60,63,108,114,115,130,142

prosecution for, 40, 143

New York Times, 176, 178Nixon, Richard, 10nobles

army and, 44banditry and, 42, 44, 45-46,

110-11,112,134as bureaucrats, 51corruption and, 51-52highway robbery and, 47-48and mercenary armies, 44-45order and, 10-IIpetty theft and , 50, 134political banditry and, 45-46,

46private wars and, 46rape and, 134restraint of, 107-8, 158sense of displacement and ,

108-9social norms of, 49-50toughness of, 43victims and, 49violent crime and, 43-44, 107women and banditry, 47

Operation Iraqi Freedom, 177order, restoration of, 10-12oriental despotism, 22Ottoman Empire

increase of violence, 121-22migration and, 119-20peasants and, 120-21spread of banditry, 117-19students and, 120

pandemic diseasesbiological aspects of 75crime and, 107-8decline of, 159discarding possessions and , 76famine and, 77globalization and, 75-76handling of corpses and, 76, 77sanitation and, 75-76, 134sexual promiscuity and, 104,

125, 127spread of, 73, 74-75, 75-76,

181pardons, 144Paris

anonymity of 69beggars and, 69-70crime in, 68, 70, 116, 161, 162depopulation from Black Death,

84-85economic crisis of, 69mobility tor criminals, 72pickpockets and, 71-72as place of refuge , 69prostitution and, 93regulation of 161security improvements, 157spatial and social division of,

70-71as student center, 53thieves and guilds, 69, 70transportation improvements,

161-62Parsons, Talcott, 31, 132peasants

banditry and, 63,117,120-21uprisings of, II, 13, 59, 63 ,

100,117petty theft, 45, 49,50,65,66,69,

72,94,134pickpocketing, 71-72Pipes, Richard, 10

230 INDEX

plaguesin Athens, 77-78Biblicalaccounts of, 77decline of, 159effects in Constantinople, 79-80as punishment, 123in Rome, 78-79spread of, 80, 122-24throughout Roman Empire, 79

policingcohesiveness of, 68controlling, 11,22,34,107,

157,159,161created, 23-24, 151growth of, 107, 156presence, 95,151, 154regulations of, 148, 153rural,144weaknesses of, 22women and, 96,151See a/so self-policing

pornography, 90-91,158power and bureaucracy, 51-52premeditated murder, 141property crimes, 40prostitution, 42

attitudes toward, 89-90clergy and, 95concubines and, 95economics of, 91, 94importing of, 94increase of, 124mercenaries and, 93nobility and, 94in Paris, 93pornography and, 90-91regulation of, 94, 125, 149-51social stability and, 95societal breakdown and, 86societal need for, 91-92syphilisand, 105, 126-27, 134vagabondsand,92-93violence and, 95-96,134

public attitude toward crime, 21,34,69

public order, disturbance of, 115Putin, Vladimir, 137, 170

rapecultural roots of, 96-97,132decrease in, 157-58economic status and, 101, 128,

129-30group assaults, 100-101 , 102,

130indicator ofvirility, 97-98lack of restraint and, 98-99military culture and, 99-100motivation for, 101nobles and, 98, 134property crimes and, 103punishment and, 100victims of, 97victims' responses, 102-3violence of, 98, 128

repression, increase of, 139,140-41, 155

repressive stateabsolutism and, 155-56corporal punishment and,

136-37ideologies and, 135-36ideologies of, 154, 170-71,

181-84increase of security, 164-66leaders and, 137-38legitimacy of, 144-45, 179-80normalization and, 137, 138,

155, 180-81personal security and, 156-57property protection and, 163repression and, 139, 140-41role of, 1-2,9slave trade and, 164success of, 164support for, 17-18See a/so State

I ND EX 231

revolutionscollapse of order, 8cyclical model of, 4-6defined as, 2-4, 4-5, 6medieval vision of, 5-6restore basic order , 1,9-10,

11-12Rock, David, 105Roman Republic, 22-24Rome,S, 22, 23, 24, 54, 64--65,

78,79,84,171rulers

absolute power of, 14-16characteristics of, 137-38legitimacyof,12-14

Russiaanarchy and, 18bribery and, 51-52communes, 145criminal elite and, 43post-Soviet, 137, IIIRomanov dynasty and, 10

Rwanda, 137

sacrilege, 152-53Sade, Marquis de, 96-97Safire, William, 176sanitation

defecation/urination regulationand, 159-60

and handling of corpses, 77improvements in, 162lack of, 74regulation of, 160-61spread of diseases and, 76, 122,

134urbanization and, 74

Schmidt, Carl, 175security, increase of, 156-57, 159,

162,164-66self-policing, 15, 16, 136, 138,

155, 165, 180, 181,182See also policing

September 11,2002,135,172-74,175,183

sexual acts, 95-96, 97See also rape

sexualityattitudes toward, 89, 158-59democratization of, 124,

128-29lack of restraint, 98-99laws on, 149-52multiple partners and, 99speech and, 124spiritual changes and, 88-89See also prostitution

Simrnel, George, 25, 36Skocpol, Theda, 2-3slave labor, 148, 168slavery, 14,65,90,91,92,99,

102,118,119,145,146,147,164,168,169,173

slave trade, 80,148, 164social control

changes in, 3, 35, 65, 99, 133,136,137,181

courts and, 23, 71, 141, 156crime and, 15,29,30,117,165early modern state and, 74

social disintegrationcapitalism and, 30-31despotic state and, 16, 154disease and, 77factors leading to, 9increase of crime and, 23, 29,

36,73,91,92,95,111,117longevity of, 137normalization and, 180-81patriarchy and, 86-87sense of displacement and, 64,

108as transitional state, 19,21,133,

134,136urbanization and, 30-32, 68

social engineering, 146-47

232 I ND EX

social norms, 20 , 31, 33, 49 , 54,155,162,163

Sociology ofRevolution, The(Sorokin), 8- 9

soldiersbanditry and, 112,113-14, 118decrease in violence, 156honorable discharge of, 163military organ ization of, 118,

119sense of displacement and,

108-9syphilis and, 127See also mercena ries

Solzhenitsyn, Alexander, 171-72Sorokin, Pitirim, 2,15,16,18,21,

31,33,131-32,137,154,182

Man and Society in Calamity,8-9

Sociology ofR evolution, The, 8-9State

brothel regulations, 125censorship and, 153defecation/urination regulation

and, 159-60economic regulations and,

163-64fixation regulations, 146food regulations and, 145-46,

163-64increased power of, 107, 154ineffectiveness of, 112institution regulations and,

147-48legitimacyof,144-45sexuality regulat ion, 149-52slave labor and, 148social engineering and, 146-47,

148spiritual regulation and, 152-53travel restrictions and, 148-49violence of, 154

State and Revolution, The (Lenin ),174

Stenitskii, N . A., 132students, 53-54, 120syphilis

spread of, 86, 104, 105-6, 108 ,125-27, 181

treatment of, 127-28

terrori sm, 176, 177-78See also September 11, 2002

terrori sts, 173, 176, 183thievery

Paris and, 69 , 70rates of, 38student s and, 54See also pickpocketing

Ti me on the Cross(Fogel andEngerman), 164

Tocqueville, Alexis de, 165 , 179Tonnics, Ferdinand, 7, 30tot alitarian regimes . See repressive

statetrade, 73, 74travel, 74-75, 148-49Two Tactics ofSocial Democracy in

the Democratic R evolution,The (Lenin ), 3

United Statescivil libert ies and, 179global predominance and, 177governing elite and, 10imperialism of, 171instability of, 177-79, 179-80need tor security, 173-74, 183 ,

184as repressive state, 174-76, 181torture and, 179toughness of, 42-43

urban izationcrime and, 116sanitation and, 74, 122 , 134social disintegration and, 30-32

INDE X 233

urination/defecation regulation,159-60

USSR,154as repressive state, 176, 182-83securityof,171-72Stalin regime and, 135, 166-70

vagabondsbanditry and, 115emergence of, 64-65in France, 66-68increase of, 65and mercenaries, 67-68migration of, 65and prostitution, 92-93rise of, 66-67slave labor and, 148social engineering and, 148susceptible to disease, 77

Villandrando, Rodrique de, 47violence

culture of, 27declining, 156economic divisions and, 109increase of, 36, 40, 108, 121-22institutionalization of, 28legitimization of, 37plunder and, 109-10

proliferation of, 40-41protection from, 15religious factions and, 108sense of displacement and,

108-9by State, 154unmotivated, 39urban/rural, 115-16weapons accessibility and, 109weapons availability, 117-18See also crime

Volkischer Beobachter, 174

war, democratization of, 37War of the Roses, 49weapons

availabilityof, 37-38, 38of mass destruction, 177, 178

white -collar crime, 42women

criminal behavior of, 39interest in sexuality, 87-88, 128lack of male guardianship,

86-87legal existence of, 52nobles and banditry, 47rape victims, 97starvation and, 87