developing an understanding of communication · • newborns prefer speech to other sounds...
TRANSCRIPT
Developing an understanding of communication
Alia Martin Harvard University
CBMM Summer School August 25, 2015
1
What is communication?
transfer or exchange of information
2
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Human communication requires:
reasoning about cognitive states
reasoning about social interaction
(often) reasoning about language
5
Core Knowledge NumberGeometry/Space
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Addressee Communicator
7
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1. Language is an action 8
Is there any salt?
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“Is there any salt?”
Locationary act: interrogative about presence of salt
Illocutionary act: requesting salt
Perlocationary act: causing Austin, 1955 addressee to provide salt
10
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“Is there any salt?”
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1. Developing an ability to identify a communication action or situation
12
• 6-month-olds recognize speech is human-
produced and human-directed (Vouloumanos et
al., 2009; Legerstee et al., 2000)
• 10-month-olds expect mutual gaze
between speakers (Beier & Spelke, 2011)
Identifying communicative contexts
• Newborns prefer speech to other sounds (Vouloumanos & Werker, 2004; 2007; Shultz & Vouloumanos, 2010)
13
© Wiley. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commonslicense. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.Source: Vouloumanos, Athena, and Janet F. Werker. "Listening to language atbirth: Evidence for a bias for speech in neonates." Developmental science 10, no.
2 (2007): 159-164.
Vouloumanos & Werker, 2007 1 to 4 days old 14
© Wiley. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commonslicense. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.Source: Vouloumanos, Athena, and Janet F. Werker. "Listening to language atbirth: Evidence for a bias for speech in neonates." Developmental science 10, no.
2 (2007): 159-164.
© Wiley Press. All rights reserved. This content is excluded from our Creative Commonslicense. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.Source: Vouloumanos, Athena, and Janet F. Werker. "Listening to language atbirth: Evidence for a bias for speech in neonates." Developmental science 10, no.
2 (2007): 159-164.15
• 10-month-olds expect mutual gaze
between speakers (Beier & Spelke, 2011)
Identifying communicative contexts
• Newborns prefer speech to other sounds (Vouloumanos & Werker, 2004; 2007; Shultz & Vouloumanos, 2010)
• 6-month-olds recognize speech is human- produced (Vouloumanos et al., 2009) and human-
directed (Legerstee et al., 2000; Molina et al., 2004)
16
5-month-olds Vouloumanos et al., 2009 17
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Habituation
ActingTalking Test
Courtesy of American Psychological Association. Used with permission.Source: Legerstee, Maria, Joanne Barna, and Carolyn DiAdamo. "Precursorsto the development of intention at 6 months: Understanding people andtheir actions." Developmental Psychology 36, no. 5 (2000): 627.
6-month-olds Occluder reveals person Legerstee et al., 2000 19
Habituation
Talking ActingTest
Courtesy of American Psychological Association. Used with permission.Source: Legerstee, Maria, Joanne Barna, and Carolyn DiAdamo. "Precursorsto the development of intention at 6 months: Understanding people andtheir actions." Developmental Psychology 36, no. 5 (2000): 627.
Occluder reveals object 20
Courtesy of American Psychological Association. Used with permission.Source: Legerstee, Maria, Joanne Barna, and Carolyn DiAdamo. "Precursorsto the development of intention at 6 months: Understanding people andtheir actions." Developmental Psychology 36, no. 5 (2000): 627.
21
Identifying communicative contexts
• Newborns prefer speech to other sounds (Vouloumanos & Werker, 2004; 2007; Shultz & Vouloumanos, 2010)
• 6-month-olds recognize speech is human- produced (Vouloumanos et al., 2009) and human-
directed (Legerstee et al., 2000; Molina et al., 2004)
• 10-month-olds expect mutual gaze
between speakers (Beier & Spelke, 2011)
22
Hey there! Oh hi!
Hey there! Oh hi!
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license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.Source: Beier, Jonathan S., and Elizabeth S. Spelke. "Infants’ developing understanding
of social gaze." Child development 83, no. 2 (2012): 486-496.
9- and 10-month-olds Beier & Spelke, 2011 23
Hey there! Oh hi!
Hey there! Oh hi!
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license. For more information, see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.Source: Beier, Jonathan S., and Elizabeth S. Spelke. "Infants’ developing understanding
of social gaze." Child development 83, no. 2 (2012): 486-496.
24
Identifying communicative contexts
• Newborns prefer speech to other sounds (Vouloumanos & Werker, 2004; 2007; Shultz & Vouloumanos, 2010)
• 6-month-olds recognize speech is human- produced (Vouloumanos et al., 2009) and human-
directed (Legerstee et al., 2000; Molina et al., 2004)
• 10-month-olds expect mutual gaze
between speakers (Beier & Spelke, 2011)
25
Do infants understand that speech transfers information
between people?
26
Addressee Communicator
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“The cup!”
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“Oooh!”
Addressee Communicator
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Communicator Addressee
La taza!
Bēizi! katora! “The cup!”
Der becher! La tasse!
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“The cup!”
La tasse! Der becher!
Bēizi!
La taza!
katora!
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Do infants recognize that speech is communicative?
12-month-olds 31
Procedure
32
Procedure
Communicator Addressee
Infant
33
Communicator Familiarization
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.
Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003.
34
Addressee Familiarization
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003.
35
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003.
36
Test
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.
Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003.
37
Test
“****”“****”
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.
Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003.
38
Test - Speech
“Koba!”
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003.
39
Test - Cough
*cough*
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003.
40
Test – Emotional Vocalization
“Oooh!”
Test “****”
Target Non-target Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003.
41
Visual
Access +
Oooh
Addressee
Speech
Results Lo
ok
ing
Tim
e (
s)
* 40
35
30
25
20
*
*
*
Target 15
Non-target
10
5
0
Speech Cough Oooh
Martin, Onishi, & Vouloumanos, 2012 42
Discussion
• 12-month-olds recognize that speech
can transfer information about an
object, but emotional expressions and
coughing cannot
• Reasoning about information access?
43
Communicator Addressee
“Oooh!”
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Communicator Familiarization Addressee Visual Access
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speechin communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003 45
Addressee Familiarization
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003.
46
Test *Oooh!*
Target Non-target Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003.47
Addressee
Speech
Results Lo
ok
ing
Tim
e (
s)
* 40
35
30
25
20
*
*
*
*
* Target 15
Non-target
10
5
0
Speech Cough Oooh Visual Access +
Oooh
Martin, Onishi, & Vouloumanos, 2012 48
Discussion
• 12-month-olds recognize that speech
can transfer information about an
object, but emotional expressions and
coughing cannot
• Reasoning about information access? Yes!
• Reasoning about information sources?
49
Communicator Familiarization
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003 50
Addressee Familiarization
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003. 51
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003.
52
Test – Addressee Speech“Koba!
”
Test “Koba!
”
Target Non-target Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003.53
Results *
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Loo
kin
g T
ime
(s)
Target
Non-target **
*
*
* *
Speech Cough Oooh Visual Addressee
Access + Speech
Oooh
Martin, Onishi, & Vouloumanos, 2012 54
Discussion
• 12-month-olds recognize that speech
can transfer information about an
object, but emotional expressions and
coughing cannot
• Reasoning about information access? Yes!
• Reasoning about information sources? Yes!
55
Do infants recognize that speech is communicative?
12-month-olds
6-month-olds? 56
6-month-olds…
• understand some common words used in their environment (Bergelson & Swingley, 2012; Tincoff
& Jusczyk, 1999; 2012)
• no evidence for learning a word in a
single trial
57
“Koba!” *cough*
Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., https://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.Source: Martin, Alia, Kristine H. Onishi, and Athena Vouloumanos. "Understanding the abstract role of speech
in communication at 12months." Cognition 123, no. 1 (2012): 50-60. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.12.003. 58
Vouloumanos, Martin, & Onishi, in press 59
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Speech Cough Co
*
*
ugh + Visual
Access
Loo
kin
g T
ime
(s)
Target
Non-Target
=
Results: 6-month-olds
Speech is communicative for infants
• 6- and 12-month-old infants recognize
that speech is communicative
– transfers information from one person to
another
• May provide a mechanism for
language and knowledge acquisition
60
1. Developing an ability to identify a communication action or situation
61
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2. Communication requires a focus on intentions
62
Communicative Intentions Is there
any salt?
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63
“Is there any salt?”
Locationary act: interrogative about presence of salt
Illocutionary act: requesting salt
Perlocationary act: causing addressee
Austin, 1955
to provide salt
64
Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.
Image by MIT OpenCourseWare.
Grice (1957): Speaker meaning
1) The communicator (C) intends the
addressee (A) to respond in a particular
way (R)
2) C intends A to recognize that C intends for
A to respond R
3) C intends A to fulfill (1) on the basis of (2)
65
Infant attention to communicative intentions
66
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16 to 19 months Baldwin, 1991 67
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Southgate et al., 2010 17 months 68
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Southgate et al., 2010 17 months 69
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Actor does NOT see switch
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Grice (1957): Speaker meaning
1) The communicator (C) intends the
addressee (A) to respond in a particular
way (R)
2) C intends A to recognize that C intends for
A to respond R
3) C intends A to fulfill (1) on the basis of (2)
76
Speaker meaning in children?
77
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18- to 30-month-olds Shwe & Markman, 1997; Grosse et al., 2010 78
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You asked for the truck? I’m going to give you the truck.
79
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You asked for the truck? I’m going to give you the sock.
80
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You asked for the sock? I’m going to give you the truck.
81
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82
Speaker meaning in children?
• By 18-24 months, children care about
the impact of their communicative
signals on the understanding (not just
the response!) of their addressee
83
3-year-olds Martin & Olson, 2013 84
“Can you give me that cup so I can pour a cup of water?”
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85
Martin & Olson, 2013 86
Results
0
25
50
75
100
Functional Dysfunctional
Conventional
Dysfunctional
Unconventional
ted
Re
qu
es
ivin
g
% G
Object Requested
*
Functional
Dysfunctional
Results
0
25
50
75
100
Functional Dysfunctional
% F
un
ctio
n C
om
me
nts
Object Requested
*
Martin & Olson, 2013 87
Speaker meaning in children?
• By 18-24 months, children care about
the impact of their communicative
signals on the understanding (not just
the response!) of their addressee
• By 3 years, children acknowledge
what the speaker meant to ask for,
even if they give her something else
88
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3. Communication is a joint action, of accumulating common ground
89
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Isaacs & Clark, 1987 90
~9months – joint attention
Tomasello, 1995; Tomasello & Carpenter, 2007
91
Person 2
~12months – use shared experience to interpret communication
Communicator
1
Communicator
2
Infant
Addressee
e.g., Ganea & Saylor, 2007; Liebal et al., 2009; Moll et al., 2006; 2007; Saylor & Ganea, 2007 92
Communicator
1
Infant
Addressee
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93
Infant
Addressee
Communicator
2
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94
Common ground
Communicator
1
Can you give
it to me?
Communicator
2
Infant
Addressee
95
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Communicator
1
Infant
Addressee
Can you give it to me?
Communicator
2
96
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Communicator
1
Can you give it to me?
Infant
Addressee
Communicator
2
97
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see https://ocw.mit.edu/help/faq-fair-use/.
Communicator
1
Can you give
it to me?
Infant
Addressee
Communicator
2
98
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99
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Remaining questions:
How rich are infants’
representations of common
ground?
community membership?
100
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community membership?
Remaining questions:
How rich are infants’
representations of common
ground?
Remaining questions:
How rich are infants’ representations of common ground?
How do children build an
understanding of common ground
based on non-episodic cues like
community membership?
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101
Communicator Addressee
102
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Animal communication
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Animal communication
• Sensitivity to presence of audience – e.g., alarm-calling species rarely alarm call if
no members of their species are present
• Sensitivity to identity of audience – e.g., ground squirrels, vervet monkeys alarm
call much more in presence of kin
• Sensitivity to knowledge state of
audience – e.g., Wild chimpanzees alarm-call more when
unaware chimpanzees are around
104
Animal communication • Eliciting stimuli for communicative signals, and
signals themselves, tend to be fixed/inflexible
• Receivers acquire information from vocal
signals, but no evidence of information about
mental states
• Communicators’ signals can cause a beneficialresponse in receivers, but no evidence for
intention of changing receiver’s mental state
105
Grice: Speaker meaning
1) The communicator (C) intends the
addressee (A) to respond in a particular
way (R)
2) C intends A to recognize that C intends for
A to respond R
3) C intends A to fulfill (1) on the basis of (2)
106
The inability of most animals to recognize
the mental states of others distinguishes
animal communication most clearly from
human language. Whereas signalers
may vocalize to change a listener’s behavior, they do not call to inform
others. Listeners acquire information from
signalers who do not, in the human
sense, intend to provide it.
Seyfarth & Cheney, 2003 107
Core Knowledge NumberGeometry/Space
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Objects
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Social Beings
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1lp/faq-fair-use/.
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Communication requires:
reasoning about cognitive states
reasoning about social interaction
(often) reasoning about language
109
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