Tabl

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EditorsKari StrandTuija Siira

Editorial and programmeboardDorete Bloch,The Faroe IslandsNíels Einarsson, IcelandAlf Håkon Hoel, NorwayCaroline Leck, SwedenBente Aagaard Lomstein,DenmarkGert Mulvad, GreenlandMatti Saarnisto,Finland, chair

Cover photographs byKari Strand

Other photographs byNARP-secretariat andproject coordinators

Graphic designHannele Heikkilä-Tuomaala

Printed in Kalevaprint,Oulu, Finland, 2005

ISBN 951-42-7808-9

Foreword ........................................................................................................3

Research on land, sea and atmosphere– Natural processes – land, sea and atmosphere –

Pollution and rapid climatic changes in the Arctic as recorded by lake sedimentaryarchives – JOHN BIRKS ..............................................................................................................6

Monitoring the flow of Atlantic water through the Norwegian and Barents seas using coastalwater level data – THOMAS A. MCCLIMANS ...................................................................................7

Sources of airborne aerosol particles over the remote Arctic Ocean and their climaticimpact – ERIK SWIETLICKI ...........................................................................................................9

Climatic change, carbon flux and living resources in the Nordic seas – PAUL WASSMANN ........12

Investigating rapid climate change using Svalbard ice cores – ELISABETH ISAKSSON ...................14

The adaptation of organisms has economic consequences– Biological diversity and environmental threats in the Arctic –

Cross-system analysis of the variation in the biological structure and dynamics of NorthAtlantic lakes related to variations and changes in climate and land use – ERIK JEPPESEN .........18

Capability of arctic plant species to respond to rapid environmental changes– INGER NORDAL ......................................................................................................................20

Human impact and sustainable utilisation of subarctic birch forests in a changingenvironment – KARI LAINE ......................................................................................................22

Short- and long-term fluctuations in animal populations in Lake Myvatn – a model forclimatic and human impact on the ecosystem – ÁRNI EINARSSON ............................................27

Opportunities for human life in the North– Living conditions of the inhabitants of the Arctic –

Survey of living conditions in the Arctic: Inuit, Sami and the indigenouspeoples in Chukotka and on the Kola Peninsula – THOMAS ANDERSEN .............30

Life of the Norse in SW Greenland in 985-1500: Influence of environmentalchange on sustainability and farming conditions – NAJA MIKKELSEN ................31

Development of methodologies for the evaluation of the socioeconomicand environmental consequences of mineral and energy industries in theArctic and Subarctic – RASMUS O. RASMUSSEN ..................................................32

Forestry beyond the timberline: ecological and socio-economic factorsaffecting forestry in the context of rural development in the North Atlanticregion – THRÖSTUR EYSTEINSSON .......................................................................34

The natural processes that shape theNordic Arctic and Sub-arctic regionsand especially the northern Atlantic

Ocean are globally important. In the northernAtlantic, the southern warm ocean currents arereplaced by currents from the cold Polar region.This process has a notable impact on bothregional and global climate. The prevailingclimate conditions, in turn, significantly con-tribute to the biological resources and, evenmore widely, to the possibilities of people tomaintain favourable living conditions in thenorthern regions. Arctic plants and animals livein extreme conditions, and even minor changesin these conditions may affect their ability tosurvive. Short-term climatic changes that takeplace within a generation are mostly governedby changes in ocean currents. However, ourknowledge of these processes continues to beinadequate. There is a call for internationalresearch on the living conditions of people inthe North in relation to the goals of sustainabledevelopment. The level of public interest inArctic matters is high, and the Nordic countriesshould therefore assume increasing responsi-bility for Arctic research especially in Europe.

The Nordic Council of Ministers estab-lished a Nordic Arctic Research Programme(NARP) for the years 1999–2003. The pro-gramme board consisted of representatives ofall Nordic countries, the Faroe Islands andGreenland. The coordinating secretariat of theprogramme lead by Dr. Kari Strand was in theThule Institute at the University of Oulu. Theprogramme with the total budget of DKK 31million was a significant resource for Nordicresearch in the Arctic and it provided a particu-larly good opportunity for Nordic cooperationand research networking. Outstanding work ona variety of Arctic issues has been made through

Foreword

the programme’s 63 projects. A great numberof young students have greatly benefited fromtheir study visits in Nordic laboratories and ac-tive networks were established within the pro-gramme. In addition, cooperation with research-ers from the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Ice-land improved during the programme.

It has become clear during the course ofthe Nordic Arctic Research Programme thatthere is an urgent need for multidisciplinaryscientific Arctic studies also in the future. Espe-cially, the trends and amplitudes of environ-mental changes in the Arctic are still poorly re-corded and not fully understood. The rapidlychanging socio-economic conditions in theArctic, especially the Russian Arctic, requirespecial scientific attention.

This publication describes the main goalsand highlights of selected NARP projects andalso recognised the common need for furthercoordinated Nordic Arctic research. Highlydiverse projects were included in NARP. Someprojects were active throughout the wholeNARP lifespan, while some projects, e.g. thosefor organising a conference, were supportedonly for one year. The following pages introducethe project’s highlights grouped under threethemes: Natural processes - land, sea and at-mosphere; Biological diversity and environ-mental threats in the Arctic; and Living con-ditions of the in-habitants of the Arctic. •

LINKAGE OF OCEANIC

CURRENTS BETWEEN THE

NORTH ATLANTIC AND

THE POLAR SEA

RESPONSE OF ARCTIC

PLANTS AND ANIMALS

TO RAPID CHANGES

MANAGEMENT OF

NATURAL RESOURCES

AND SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT

HUMAN WELFARE AND

COMMUNITY VIABILITY

IN THE ARCTIC

3

Matti Saarnisto, professorChair of the boardNordic Arctic Research Programme

4

The Nordic Council of Ministers

The Nordic Council of Ministers, set up in

1971, is a cooperative body that serves the

governments of the five Nordic countries.

The Nordic Council of Ministers implements the

practical aspects of Nordic cooperation in all policy

areas. The Secretariat of the Nordic Council of Min-

isters in Copenhagen is responsible for the opera-

tional aspects of Nordic cooperation and pro-

grammes. The plan and priorities for the Nordic Arc-

tic Research Programme have been specified by the

Nordic Science Policy Council, which is an ad-visory

committee and expert group for the Nordic Council

of Ministers in the field of education and research.

Nordic Research Co-operation

Nordic research co-operation, which takes

place between the countries of Denmark,

Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden,

as well as the autonomous territories of the Faroe

Islands, Greenland and Åland, is an integral agent of

the co-operation conducted at a broader European

and international level. Nordic co-operation increas-

ingly reaches out to include also the adjacent areas

– Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, North-West Russia and

Arctic regions. The Nordic Ministers for Education

and Research have agreed to give the Nordic coun-

tries a leading position in competence development

and research, with the emphasis on development of

human resources and to stimulate the exchange of

experience and development of research and inno-

vative Nordic initiatives in this field.

The Nordic Council

The Nordic Council is the interparliamentary

body involving the members from the par-

liaments of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Nor-

way and Sweden as well as the three autonomous

areas: the Faroe Islands, Greenland and Åland. The

Nordic Council was established in 1952. The indi-

vidual Nordic parliaments appoint the 87 members

of the Nordic Council. The Nordic Council takes in-

itiatives and acts in an advisory and supervisory ca-

pacity on issues and matters of interest to official

Nordic co-operation.

Research on land, sea and atmosphere

– Natural processes – land, sea andatmosphere –

6

The project “Pollution and rapid climaticchanges in the Arctic as recorded by lakesedimentary archives” (POLARCLIM) ex-

panded Nordic expertise in the detection andassessment of rapid climatic changes and tem-poral trends of the spread of pollution in theArctic. Project aims included establishing anetwork of 10 scientists and 15 doctoral andgraduate students and postdoc researchers infour Nordic countries and Svalbard; improvingthe training and mobility of young researchersby issuing travel grants and training grants toallow them to learn specialised skills in labora-tories in another Nordic country; organisinggraduate-level training courses and four work-shops on topics in Arctic palaeoecology; andlaunching a small pilot-scale field researchproject for teaching purposes in the Lyngen Alpsin northern Norway, involving geological,palaeoecological and chemical approaches.

Training of young researchers

There has been considerable training of youngNordic researchers in various aspects of Arcticpalaeoecology and palaeoclimatology, particu-larly in quantification and numerical data analy-sis, field techniques and data interpretation. Thistraining has been backed up by taxonomicworkshops and exchange of material, researchvisits to POLARCLIM laboratories and labora-tories in the UK and active networking throughthe various successful POLARCLIM workshops.These have been held on Svalbard (2001) andin Bergen (2000, 2003), Copenhagen (2003) andHelsinki (2003). The workshops have coveredtopics such as environmental changes in theArctic, land-ocean relationships in the Arctic,pollution and palaeoecological studies onGreenland, use of Bayesian statistical ap-

Pollution and rapid climaticchanges in the Arctic as recordedby lake sedimentary archives

ACTIVE NETWORKING

THROUGH THE

SUCCESSFUL POLARCLIM

WORKSHOPS

CLOSE RESEARCH

COLLABORATION

BETWEEN BERGEN,HELSINKI AND UPPSALA

proaches in environmental reconstruction andthe limnology and palaeolimnology of Arcticlakes.

Modern organism-environment calibra-tion data sets and associated transfer functionshave been developed in Finland, northern Swe-den, Norway, western Greenland and Svalbardthrough training in modern quantitative tech-niques. The transfer functions have been el-egantly validated against historical climate databy the Abisko group and applied to Holocenesequences to derive quantitative reconstructionsof the past climate and lake water pHs for sev-eral Arctic areas. Through POLARCLIM net-working, several multi-proxy studies have beenmade possible, involving groups in Umeå, Hel-sinki and Bergen. The Umeå group has detectedand quantified the extent of pre-industrial at-mospheric pollution of lead and mercury in arc-tic Sweden and western Greenland.

Completion of a large, multi-proxy inves-tigation on recent environmental change andatmospheric contamination were recorded inlake sediments on Svalbard. The results indi-cate major biotic changes in the last 50-100years that parallel similar changes in arctic Fin-land and the high Canadian Arctic. The Svalbardstudy has revealed the low-atmospheric con-tamination over much of Svalbard and the re-markably dynamic nature of lake biota in thishigh Arctic archipelago. The results were pub-lished as a special issue of the Journal of Paleo-climatology.

Through POLARCLIM, there has beenvery close research collaboration betweenBergen, Helsinki, and Uppsala, resulting in thecompilation of a modern pollen climate cali-bration data pool of 304 samples, which hasbeen used to reconstruct the Holocene climatefor arctic Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Kola

Project coordinator:

John BirksBotanical Institute,University of Bergen,Allégaten 41N-5007 Bergen, Norway

Tel:+ 47 55 58 33 50 (office)+ 47 55 58 33 45 (secretary)Fax:+ 47 55 58 96 67E-mail:John.Birks@bot.uib.no

13 project partnersYears 1999 – 2003

Peninsula. This subproject has been describedin several papers in scientific journals such asBoreas, The Holocene and Quaternary Research.As a result of POLARCLIM, there is now a veryeffective network of palae-oecologists and pa-laeolimnologists in Arctic Fennoscandia with anew generation of young researchers, who havebenefited greatly from POLARCLIM network-ing, training courses and collaboration. •

The flux of Atlantic water into the Nordicand Barents seas is vital for the existenceof life in this corner of the world. Cou-

pled circulation model experiments have indi-cated a possible weakening of the global ther-mohaline overturning, causing concern aboutthe stability of the inflow and its sensitivity toglobal and regional changes. There have beenseveral attempts to estimate and monitor thesefluxes, but most of the monitoring efforts havebeen performed using expensive arrays of cur-rent meters. The main objective of the projectwas to assess the possibility of using coastalwater level measurements for monitoring theflux of Atlantic water through the Nordic andBarents seas into the Arctic Ocean, and to esti-mate the effects on sea ice variations. The pro-ject has improved our understanding of climatevariability in the area. The results, combinedwith transport time scales, will be helpful forpredicting climate variability. Due to the closerelation between climate variability and fish

Monitoring the flow of Atlanticwater through the Norwegianand Barents seas using coastalwater level data

population parameters, the project may alsoresult in more reliable advice for the develop-ment of fish stocks.

This project was extended to a Europeanscale by including the region from the RockallTrough to the Kara Sea. The EU 5th FrameworkProgramme project was named “Monitoring theAtlantic Inflow toward the Arctic” (MAIA). Al-gorithms computed on the basis of the analy-ses of historical data were subjected to a vali-dation period of in situ measurements of cur-rents, hydrography, bottom pressures and neu-trally buoyant drifters during the period of May2000 to November 2001.

The results show that barotropic slopecurrents can be monitored with good accuracyon a 5-day average by using coastal water lev-els and off-slope satellite altimetry. These cur-rents are the “fast-track” for heat supply to theBarents Sea and the Svalbard region. Off-slopebaroclinic transports can be monitored withmonthly resolution using satellite altimetry and

Project coordinator:

Thomas A. McClimansSINTEF Civil andEnvironmentalEngineeringCoastal and OceanEngineeringN-7465 TrondheimNorway

Tel:+47 73592417Fax:+47 73592376E-mail:Thomas.a.McClimans@civil.sintef.no

6 project partnersYears 1999 – 2001

7

seasonal variability of density.The density of Atlantic water in the Nor-

dic seas depends on the balance between themajor inflows. There was observed to be alarger-than-normal inflow past Scotland and alesser-than-normal inflow in the Faroe Currentduring the validation period. Estimates of thetotal inflow of Atlantic water were made for theperiod 1978 – 2002. Hindcast periods of greaterinflow agree with periods of reduced ice coverin the Barents Sea and the warming of the At-lantic core in the Arctic Ocean. There is as yetunknown transfer between the baroclinic and

barotropic transports, depending on season andlatitude. These appear to be strongest in theFaroe-Shetland Channel and in the Barents Seaopening. A better network of tide gauges in theNorth and improved capabilities of satellitealtimetry in ice-infested waters are needed. Theaccuracy of the method can be improved bymonitoring bottom pressures on the shelf andoff-shelf. Data from the validation study in 2000-2001 and all public reports from the MAIAproject are available on a CD-ROM at the BritishOceanographic Data Centre [www.bodc.ac.uk]. •

The main objective of the associated project “Rapid transport of pollutants in drift ice to melt-

down regions near Atlantic inflows” was to pursue the MAIA project’s efforts and to focus more

on the questions of biodiversity and living conditions in the northern regions. More specifically, the

transport routes and transport speed of pollutant-laden ice to the region and the rate of melt-down at

the fronts were analysed in search for more efficient monitoring strategies.

Sea ice can accumulate pollutants from atmospheric deposition: in shallow water directly from

the bottom sediments and in the deeper ocean from the mineral and biological particles present

in the near-surface water. Once ice-borne, these pollutants can travel thousands of kilometers with-

out significant dispersion. The accumulation of atmospheric deposition is like reverse entropy: gath-

ering rather than spreading the pollutants. This process is further enhanced as the ice can be large,

mimicking physical accumulation akin to bioaccumulation in the food web. The melting regions

have high biological productivity due to strong stratification. Areas of high production and high

pollutant concentrations may affect the seafood used for human consumption. Examples of this can

be the Hopen Deep in the Barents Sea and the Yermak Plateau north of Svalbard. The results of MAIA

and other efforts by the participating institutes show important fast-track routes of the surface cur-

rents along ocean fronts and bottom slopes. To accomplish further application of these results, the

network was expanded to include circulation in the northern regions and ice chemistry. The efforts of

this collaboration were expected to support the AMAP (Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme)

and the Norwegian Transport and Effects Programme. The evidence indicates that drift ice is poten-

tially an important transport route for pollutants to marine food supplies in the North. The results

were presented at the AMAP meeting in Rovaniemi and at the annual meeting of the Association of

Norwegian Oceanographers in Bergen. A further presentation was given at the Arctic-Alpine meeting

in Tromsø in February 2003. The project defined future tasks to measure and model the accumula-

tion of pollutants in first-year ice on its way towards the melting fronts near Svalbard and Iceland. Of

heavy metals, the focus is on Hg because it is enhanced at polar sunrise, and because there is

significant input from coal-fired power plants around the world. There are several organic substances

that affect the Arctic food chain. These can be extracted from the same ice and snow samples. The

transports to and within the drift ice have to be estimated from numerical models validated against

field data. The Norwegian Polar Institute, with its experience in field work and contaminant studies

in this region, will promote this project in the future.

8

In the summer of 2001, the Swedish PolarResearch Secretariat organised an expedi-tion to the Arctic Ocean on the Swedish ice-

breaker Oden. The Atmospheric Research Pro-gramme of the Arctic Ocean Expedition 2001(AOE-2001) was a continuation and develop-ment of the successful research carried out onprevious Swedish icebreaker expeditions to thehigh Arctic in 1991 and 1996. The central Arc-tic Ocean is a region particularly sensitive toclimate change due to positive feedback mecha-nisms, such as the increase in surface reflectiv-ity (albedo) associated with a decrease in icecover induced by enhanced warming. Little iscurrently known about the negative feedbackmechanisms that might counteract the ongoingmelting of pack ice in the Arctic and thus alsohelp to mitigate the climatic consequences ofthe shrinking polar ice cap. The main objectiveof the AOE-2001 (see http://www.fysik.lu.se/eriksw/aoe2001/aoe2001.htm) was to quantifythe impact of aerosols on climate and to in-crease our knowledge of how natural aerosolparticles are produced and transported in thearctic atmosphere. The research programme isinternational and interdisciplinary and coversfive fields: marine biology, gas and aerosolchemistry, aerosol physics, meteorology andmodelling.

AOE-2001 field experiment

Most of the AOE-2001 activities were carriedout during a 3-week ice drift when the ship wasmoored to drifting sea ice at about latitude 89oN.Research was carried out both aboard the shipand on the ice. Data were also collected withthe help of kites, balloons and a helicopter. Thefield experiment was designed to (1) provide adescription of the microbiology of the water and

Sources of airborne aerosolparticles over the remote ArcticOcean and their climatic impact

THE ARCTIC HAS BEEN

IDENTIFIED AS THE

REGION ON EARTH

THAT IS THE MOST

SENSITIVE TO

ANTHROPOGENIC

CLIMATE

PERTURBATIONS

THE CENTRAL ARCTIC

OCEAN IS A REGION

PARTICULARLY

SENSITIVE TO CLIMATE

CHANGE DUE TO

POSITIVE FEEDBACK

MECHANISMS

ice, the nutrients present, productivity andsedimenting material; (2) determine the prop-erties of the surface microlayer and its possiblerole in influencing the nature of particles pro-duced by bubble bursting; (3) make shipboardmeasurements of the chemistry and physicalproperties of aerosol, trace gases, cloud-activeparticles, radioactive tracers and electrical con-ductivity; (4) conduct a lengthy and continu-ous series of measurements of mixing processesin the atmosphere from the surface to abovecloud top; (5) assess horizontal homogeneityof the near-surface atmosphere and (6) obtainas many vertical profiles as possible of tracegases and aerosols in various size ranges.

The expedition (AOE-2001) to the centralArctic mostly north of latitude 85oN addressedthe need to study marine life forms and theirproducts in water and ice, especially the waysin which the products of marine life forms getinto the air, the evolution of the particles pro-duced and their growth up to sizes large enoughto allow condensation into clouds. The mainobjective behind the efforts was to determinewhether these naturally generated particles andclouds would constitute a positive or negativeclimate feedback upon temperature forcing. TheArctic has been identified as the region on Earththat is the most sensitive to anthropogenic cli-mate perturbations. Both the extent and thethickness of the Arctic Ocean pack ice havebeen observed to be diminishing in responseto global climate warming.

A suite of remote sensing meteorologicalinstruments were deployed on the icebreakerOden, and later also on the ice, to provide acontinuous record of vertical profiles of windspeed and direction, temperature and cloudsin the lower troposphere. When combined withregularly released rawin soundings, atmos-

Project coordinator:

Erik SwietlickiDepartment of Physics,Division of NuclearPhysics, Lund UniversityBox 118S-221 00 Lund, Sweden

Tel:+46-46-2229680Fax:+46-46-2224709E-mail:Erik.Swietlicki@pixe.lth.se

4 project partnersYears 1999 – 2003

9

pheric moisture was also monitored. More de-tailed studies of the arctic boundary layer tur-bulence and mixing require an undisturbedenvironment. Oden affected the measurementsby causing disturbing air flow and noise fromfans and hydraulics. The ice drift was devisedto alleviate these problems. Neighbouring icefloes were also utilised for some measurements.

The summertime arctic boundary layerwas shallow, ~200 m deep, but well mixed andvery moist. Near-surface temperature mostlyremained between - 1.5 – 0oC, controlled bythe melting points of sea and fresh water. Near-surface relative humidity was typically > 95%,rarely dropping below 90%. Low clouds pre-vailed, with cloud bases commonly at ~100 m,and fog appeared frequently. However, visibil-ity outside fogs was surprisingly good (>20 km)even when the cloud base was low. This is prob-ably due to the lack of aerosols, which pre-vented the formation of haze. The boundarylayer was capped by an inversion that occa-sionally became very strong (~20 oC). Specifichumidity often increased over the inversion. Thetop of the inversion was typically at ~600 m.Low-level jets occurred infrequently and werelocated within the inversion. Thus, while theboundary layer is controlled by local surfaceproperties and turbulence, the free troposphereretains its characteristics from areas beyond the

Arctic Basin, often for days. The inversion marksthe interface between the two. During a fewweek-long periods, series of synoptic-scaleweather systems appeared. However, no or onlylight precipitation was the most common ob-servation. Weaker and shallower mesoscalefronts appeared frequently.

The biological activity of the open leadsurface microlayer was found to strongly influ-ence particle production over the pack ice re-gion, which in turn will influence cloud prop-erties in the area. Similar processes transferringparticulates from the surface microlayer to theair (bubble bursting) should be operative in theworld’s oceans.

Results and conclusions

The ice drift phase of the expedition started inearly August 2001, but it may already have beenearly summer in the upper water column forthe planktonic community. Most of the phyto-plankton present consisted of small, flagellatedforms, while most of the meso-zooplanktonbiomass was composed of copepods. Primaryand bacterial production rates were measurablebut not high. The highest densities were alwaysfound in the surface microlayer. The produc-tion of climate-relevant dimethylsulfide (DMS)and its precursor, dimethyl sulfonium propion-ate (DMSP), were determined for the first timein these high Arctic waters and were also con-strained to the ocean surface mixed layer (0-20m in depth). The DMS and DMSP concentra-tions were comparable to those of temperateoligotrophic regions but much lower than thoseobserved at the biologically rich ice edge a fewweeks earlier. Nonetheless, carbon export wasmeasured past 50 m, and it remained fairly con-stant throughout the water column for the du-ration of the drift.

Most of the atmospheric non-sulfate par-ticles >~10 nm had close counterparts in thesurface microlayer of the open leads. Concen-trations of such particles in the microlayer some-times exceeded 1014 ml-1. Bubble burstingseemed to be capable of providing aerosol par-ticles that can eventually form cloud droplets.

10

The microlayer particles appear to be identicalwith marine microcolloids. The helicopter andballoon/kite measurements further indicatedthat the formation of very small particles wasindeed taking place below the clouds or in re-gions recently occupied by cloud or fog, andthey were often found in sharply delineated re-gions. The earlier hypothesis that such forma-tion only takes place above the clouds couldtherefore be rejected.

Accumulation of proteins and amino ac-ids in the lead microlayer together with themuch larger population of airborne bacteriathan documented in previous expeditions sug-gest that, as hypothesised, the bacterial decom-position products of Arctic biota may be in-volved in aerosol particle formation processes.Primary liquid organic particles, fragments ofdiatoms and bacteria were again observed inthe accumulation mode atmospheric particles(diameter > 100 nm), enhanced during dayswith particle nucleation. More generally, accu-mulation mode particles seemed to have morethan one component. Oxidation products ofDMS often surrounded insoluble Aitken mode

(20 nm < diameter < 100 nm) particles (per-haps mixed with soluble organics) and bacteriaor other organisms. Some had sea salt compo-nents as well.

The earlier conclusion that particles growby accumulation of oxidation products of DMSwas again supported. The difference is that, in-stead of having to grow from nucleated parti-cles, growth occurs on already sizeable primaryAitken and accumulation mode particles. Thetime taken to reach CCN (Cloud CondensationNuclei) size must therefore be greatly reduced– it is a more efficient way of producing CCN.Our new scenario of arctic aerosols thus greatlyincreases the possibility of climate feedbackeffects since there is greater involvement of bio-logical processes than with DMS alone. •

11

The network on climate change, carbonflux and living resources in the Nordicsea started in 1999 and continued in

2002, refocusing on a pan-arctic perspective.The project aimed at exchanging knowledgeand enhancing competence building amongmarine biologists and physical oceanographers.It involved students, young scientists and sen-ior scientists.

The purpose of the project was to estab-

Climatic change, carbon flux andliving resources in the Nordicseas

THE NETWORK

INVOLVED STUDENTS,YOUNG SCIENTISTS

AND SENIOR

SCIENTISTS

SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT IN THE

NORDIC SEA REGION

lish and maintain co-operation within a scien-tific network to illuminate the following inter-disciplinary questions: (1) What is the impactof climate change on natural systems in termsof carbon sequestration, plankton productionand vertical export of biogenic matter and re-newable resources? (2) What are the conse-quences of global change for the dominatingspecies and the general functioning of marinethe ecosystem? (3) What is meant with “sus-

Project coordinator:

Paul WassmanNorwegian College ofFishery ScienceUniversity of TromsøN-9037 Tromsø, Norway

Tel:+47-77-644459Fax:+47-77-646020E-mail: paulw@nfh.uit.no

21 project partnersYears 1999 – 2003

Subduction of Atlantic water and climate variability in the Barents Sea: its significancefor atmospheric CO2 removal and advection of plankton into the Arctic Ocean

Years 2002 - 2003

This was a student course headed by Paul Wassmann, organised as a part of the NARP symposi-

um “C flux and climate change: The Nordic contribution to a pan-arctic perspective” that took

place in Hotel Sigulda, Sigulda, Latvia, in November 1-7, 2002.

After introducing their specific research topics in the form of posters, the students worked ac-

tively in two working groups on the following topics: (1) Do polynias contribute significantly to

C sequestration in the Arctic? Consider air-sea exchange, estimates of new production and measures

of POC flux to the benthos (using the North Water polynia as a model polynia), and (2) How might

certain functional components of the marine food web (e.g. mammals, zooplankton, etc.) respond to

a polar ice cap that continuously decreases in extent (space) and duration (time). Consider the impact

on points critical to export/retention or non-linear.

Both the students’ and the teachers’ feedback reflected the great success of the course. The Cana-

dian colleagues actually wished to copy it for their students. The students were very enthusiastic.

They were introduced to the entire field of arctic C flux studies, covering everything from physics to

air-sea exchange, pelagic cycling, vertical export and benthos. Nordic and non-Nordic experts, some

of them the best experts in their field and country, attended the course. The students were eager to

use the opportunity to discuss with the guest speakers. As most were PhD students, this exchange

was important for the progress of their studies. Such a successful student course would not have been

possible without NARP. The students obtained sufficient information about pan-arctic phenomena to

indicate that concerted action beyond the “sectorial” interest of the neighbouring states is necessary.

The Nordic perspective often called for by North American scientists, was put forward probably for

the first time. Co-operation enabled the Nordic countries to show up internationally.

12

13

tainable development”in the Nordic sea region,and what are the conse-quences of global changefor sustainable develop-ment? (4) What is therole of the marginal icezone and the increasedfresh-water run-off forthe overall functioningof the arctic environ-ments with regard to glo-bal warming? (5) Is theresignificant feedback fromthe Nordic sea region tothe global system? Thesequestions were address-ed in annual meetings of36 scientists and students from 15 institutionsfrom 7 countries. With participants from all ofthe Nordic countries, Greenland and the FaroeIslands, the meetings brought together detailedexperience from the entire geographical area.The most important fields in physical, chemi-cal and biological oceanography, natural re-sources and modelling were covered. This isthe first overview on the physics, chemistry,carbon flux and plankton dynamics in the Eu-ropean sector of the Arctic produced by Nor-dic scientists. This enabled us to organise con-certed Nordic research endeavours.

The co-operation between the partnersincreased considerably, and they met regularlyin different contexts such as symposiums, EUand Nordic meetings at different levels, researchprojects and also through student exchange. Apermanent network, ARCTOS, which involvesall partners, has been established. Integratedresearch took place through two large researchprojects: “CABANERA” and “On Thin Ice”. Part-ners in the network were involved in theECOGREEN application to EU, headed by theNational Environmental Research Institute(NERI), and “Trophic interactions of the pelagicecosystem over the northern Mid-AtlanticRidge”, application to Iceland headed by theIceland Institute of Marine Research.

We intended to use the ARCTOS networkto act as policy makers in designing researchstrategies. The project enabled education of thefirst generation of Nordic PhD students in phys-ics, chemistry, carbon flux and plankton dynam-ics. Finally, a successful workshop on the arc-tic data set from the project “Climatic variabil-ity and vertical carbon flux in the marginal icezone in the central Barents Sea” was organised.The results were published as a volume in theJournal of Marine Systems under the title “Sea-sonal C-cycling variability in the open and ice-covered waters of the Barents Sea”. The sec-ond successful symposium on C flux and cli-mate change was titled “The Nordic contribu-tion to a pan-arctic perspective”. Nordic ocea-nographers met for the first time with top ex-perts in arctic oceanography from Canada, USA,Germany and Japan. ANRP gave an answer tothe question “What is the European contribu-tion to Arctic oceanography and climatechange”. •

14

Production, food web dynamics and biological origin of compounds involvedin aerosol formation

Year 2001

The central Arctic differs greatly from the lower-latitude oceans. The main rationale for establish-

ing the aerosol-cloud-climate relationship in the Arctic, an area representative of perhaps only

10% of the world’s oceans, is that the area has a disproportionately high meaning.While the mete-

orological and biological characteristics are certainly different from those at lower latitudes, the

processes involved are expected to be similar. The project concentrates on these processes.

The ultimate aim of this project in relation to the Arctic Ocean Expedition 2001 (AOE-2001) was

to improve the accuracy of the models used to simulate climatic change by reducing uncertain-

ties associated with the indirect climate effect of aerosols. A major part of fulfilling this aim was to

assess what feedback processes might be involved and to find out their implications for both regional

and global radiative forcing. A multitude of both positive and negative climatic feedback mecha-

nisms are conceivable. These are inextricably linked with one another, which further adds to the

complexity of the problem. A distinctive feature of the international project is its interdisciplinary

nature, as it involves contributions from biology, chemistry, physics, meteorology and modelling.

This project focused on the

different climatic and envi-

ronmental parameters using ice

core records collected from Sval-

bard. Ice cores are well known for

being one of the best archives for

information of the past climatic

and environmental changes. Sval-

bard is situated in a climatically

interesting area and vulnerable to

the temperature changes in the

North Atlantic Current. Several ice

cores have been drilled at Sval-

bard ice fields over the years. In

general, the results from the ear-

lier ice cores studies have suggest-

ed similar major climatic trends as

recorded in other ice cores from

the Arctic. However, many ques-

tions remain concerning the tim-

Investigating rapid climate change using Svalbard icecores

ing of events and the shorter time-

scale changes as well as the need

to determine how much the origi-

nal records have been altered by

melting.

Ice core records fromSvalbard

A 121 m deep ice core was re-

trieved from Lomonosovfonna, the

highest ice field on Svalbard in

April 1997. Dating with a glaci-

ological flow model suggests that

the core contains about 800 years

of climate and environmental in-

formation. Our analysis covered

the most common substances,

such as Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Cl-,

NO3-, SO42-, MSA, acidity (H+) and

δ18O. We also performed some

analyses of trace metals (Hg), PAH

(polyaromatic hydrocarbons) and

organic carbon. The latter has

never before been analysed in ice

from Svalbard. Aspects of the im-

pact of the local industrial devel-

opment on Svalbard and long-

range transport from industries in

the south were revealed. During

the spring of 1998, a Japanese

drilling team with Norwegian par-

ticipants drilled a 118 m deep core

on the summit of Austfonna, and

in April-May 1999 a core of 289 m

was successfully retrieved. Based

on the volcanic eruptions detected

with this method, the core has

been dated to about 1200. The

Austfonna ice cores have been

Elisabeth Isaksson

Norwegian Polar InstituteN-9296 Tromsø, Norway

Tel:+47-77 75 05 15Fax:+47-77 75 05 01E-mail: elli@npolar.no

7 project partnersYears 1999 – 2003

15

analysed in 0.25 m parts (equiva-

lent to 3-10 years) for the same

components as the Lomonosov-

fonna core.

Results

The δ18O data from the ice cores

suggest that the 1900s was by far

the warmest century during the

past 800 years. One of the param-

eters to compare is the commonly

used temperature proxy in ice

cores, the δ18O record, and the air

temperature data from Longyear-

byen. They show correspondence

on a multi-year basis. This sug-

gests that the core site reflects the

local climate, which is why we

consider the oxygen isotopes to be

of high value as proxy tempera-

ture records. One study compared

in detail the methane sulphonic

acid (MSA) record, which is a

proxy for marine biogenic produc-

tion, and the sea ice record over

the 1920-1997 period. The results

suggest that the two are closely

related. MSA concentrations are

higher for warm years with re-

duced ice cover. Years with little

sea ice probably enable more

dimethylsulfide (DMS) production

and thus more MSA, and vice

versa. The prevailing easterly

winds suggest that the conditions

in the Barents Sea should have a

strong influence on the amount of

MSA deposited on Lomonosov-

fonna. MSA may indirectly reflect

larger-scale changes in the region,

suggesting the possibility to use

MSA as a proxy for past local cli-

mate on a decadal scale.

The δ18O record from Aust-

fonna corresponds to the August

sea ice record from the Barents

Sea over the period from 1600 to

the present, suggesting that pre-

cipitation is directly influenced by

the distance to the moisture source.

Because the August sea ice extent

is also a proxy for the Northern He-

misphere mean annual tempera-

ture, we believe this correspond-

ence to be a useful climatic sig-

nal. The sulfate records from the

ice cores show a sharp increase

in deposition in the 1950s, but the

Lomonosovfonna records show an

increase starting much earlier around

1850. This is earlier than has been

reported in Greenland, which may

suggest that the pollution situation

in Europe can be monitored bet-

ter with Svalbard ice than Green-

land ice.

The following conclusions

were derived from the project: (1)

Svalbard ice cores provide infor-

mation about major trends in the

atmospheric variability of both

climate parameters and pollution

history, even though the results

may have been somewhat affect-

16

ed by melting; (2) the recent Sval-

bard ice cores are estimated to

cover at least the past 800 years.

The 20th century is estimated to

have been the warmest century

during this period. (3) The termi-

nation of the Little Ice Age around

1900 appears to have been very

rapid and connected with signifi-

cant changes in atmospheric cir-

culation. •

The adaptation of organisms haseconomic consequences

– Biological diversity andenvironmental threats in the Arctic –

The primary objective was to elucidatehow variation and changes in climateand land use influence the biological

communities, trophic interactions and biodi-versity of North Atlantic lakes on both a short-term and a long-term scale. We establishedconceptual and empirical models to forecast theeffects of climatic changes on arctic lake eco-systems. The approach included comparativecross-system analyses of data from approxi-mately 300 North Atlantic lakes covering a widetemperature gradient ranging from oceanicallyinfluenced lakes on the Faroe Islands oversubarctic lakes in Iceland, western Greenlandand northern Norway to high Arctic lakes inGreenland and Svalbard. Within this gradient,the annual mean temperature ranges from -16.4oC to +8.6 oC and seasonal variation from 25.4to 6.7 oC. Additional data from lakes in Antarc-tica and Arctic Canada were included. The gra-dient covers examples from ice-free to perma-nently ice-covered lakes and comprises lakeslocated in catchment areas with different bed-rock, soil types and anthropogenic impacts, e.g.domestic sewage, fertilisation, sheep farmingand hydropower dam construction.

Some of the key findings

Fish play a key structuring role in arctic lakeecosystems. Studies of the trophic structure ofthese lakes as well as analyses of biological re-mains in the sediment have shown that the pres-ence of fish leads to a major decrease in large-bodied zooplankton and invertebrates of near-

Cross-system analysis of thevariation in the biological structureand dynamics of North Atlanticlakes related to variations andchanges in climate and land use

EXAMPLE OF A WELL-FUNCTIONING NETWORK

OF RESEARCHERS FROM

THE NORDIC COUNTRIES

THERE IS A PRESSING

NEED FOR

MULTIDISCIPLINARY

RESEARCH FOCUSING ON

THE BIOCOMPLEXITY OF

ECOSYSTEMS

shore areas or sediment due to predation. Theimpact seems less intense in Faroese lakes com-pared to the colder and less species-rich lakesin Greenland. Predation on invertebrates is not,however, translocated to the next level in thefood chain (e.g. phytoplankton), which is ap-parently strongly controlled by nutrients. Thepresence of fish also alters the pigmentation ofvarious zooplankton. Pigmentation becomesless intense, presumably to reduce the risk ofpredation by visually hunting fish. It does, how-ever, increase the risk of UV damage. Labora-tory experiments have shown decreasing pig-mentation of copepods in connection with anincrease in the risk of fish predation. Analysesof sediment cores covering the entire Holocenehave shown major changes in trophic structureduring the past 8,000 to 10,000 years. Theseinclude changes in the relative importance ofthe benthic and pelagic systems that can mostlikely be attributed to landscape developmentand changes in climate. Studies of Icelandiclakes have shown a significant difference in biodi-versity and nutrient status in lakes situated inareas with differences in bedrock composition.Studies in Greenland have shown that thechemical environment and biological structureof shallow lakes are very sensitive to year-to-year climate changes. Factors such as precipi-tation, the duration of snow cover and summertemperatures are important for the developmentof benthic and planktonic communities. Thepresent studies of five Faroese lakes indicate thattheir overall species richness is low comparedto lakes at similar latitudes in continental Eu-

Project coordinator:

Erik JeppesenNational EnvironmentalResearch Institute,Department of Lake andEstuarine EcologyP.O. Box 314,DK-8600 Silkeborg,Denmark

E-mail: ej@dmu.dk

9 project partnersYears 1999 – 2003

18

rope, most likely owing to spreading barriers.This makes the lakes sensitive to both inten-tional and accidental introduction of new spe-cies. The studies show very large variations intop-down control by fish, depending on the fishcommunity composition, and also indicate thatthe cascading effect on phytoplankton biomassand composition is low. Preliminary analysessuggest that the environmental effects of climatechanges on arctic and subarctic lakes are moresignificant in lakes with fish than in fishlesslakes.

The results will be of great importance forthe evaluation of how climatic changes willinfluence lakes in the Arctic and sub-Arctic. Theresults are thus included in the Arctic ClimateImpact Assessment (ACIA) Scientific Report. Theproject members have contributed to the har-monisation of monitoring programmes that willserve as the basis of decision-making in the fu-ture. We also believe that this first comprehen-sive analysis of Faroese lakes will be of greatinterest not only to scientists but also to the is-landers.

Among other things, the NARP project hasresulted in the formation of a well-functioningnetwork of researchers from the Nordic coun-tries, which, following the NORLAKE sympo-sium, has also encompassed a number of otherSwedish, Norwegian, Finnish, Icelandic andDanish groups. We have written the first bookever on Faroese lakes and published severaljoint scientific papers. We have also created alarge network of the world’s leading research-ers in the fields of neolimnology and palaeo-limnology. The co-operation is expected to re-sult in the harmonisation of monitoring activi-ties, a new joint research project, a compre-hensive international database and several pa-pers and reviews to be published in interna-tional journals.

The Nordic countries are still in need ofmultidisciplinary research focusing on thebiocomplexity of ecosystems especially in re-lation to climate and human impacts. As wesee it, there is now also competence within theestablished group to design far-sighted and pro-ductive research projects. •

19

20

The response to rapid changes in arcticplant species is dependent on the degreeof genetic variation and the capacity for

dispersal. Without genetic variation withinpopulations and without capacity for dispersal,arctic plant species may suffer or even die outdue to rapid changes in climate, for example.Natural selection can only work on genetic vari-ation, which is essential for the species to beable to adapt to new conditions. Capability ofdispersal allows the species to spread to otherlocalities and/or communicate genetically withother populations and thereby create new geno-types potentially able to cope with the chang-ing conditions. The breeding systems of theplant species are of paramount importance forthe level of genetic variation and gene flow. Acertain amount of outcrossing is often indispen-sable for genetic diversity and adequate geneflow among populations. The species most dras-tically affected by rapid changes will often beat the margin of their distribution. When com-pared with their main area of occurrence, mar-ginal populations are often less genetically var-ied and have less biotic interaction with, e.g.,pollinators and herbivores. It is within marginalpopulations that the colonisation of new areaswill take place, and in such populations theadaptation to new conditions will be the mostdemanding.

The following plant species were studiedin the project: Saxifraga hirculus, Campanulauniflora, Honkenya peploides, Armeria mari-time, Dryas octopetala/integrifolia complex andSilene acaulis. Seed banks were also studied. Itturned out that a considerable number of spe-cies are found in seed banks in the Arctic. Thestudy also resulted in five master’s theses andthe publication of two scientific articles.

Capability of arctic plant speciesto respond to rapid environmentalchanges

PLANT SPECIES AFFECTED

BY RAPID CHANGES WILL

OFTEN BE AT THE

MARGINS OF THEIR

DISTRIBUTION

Main results

The following questions were asked and an-swered in this NARP project:

Do arctic plant species reacting positivelyto environmental manipulations (e.g. tempera-ture increase) possess larger genetic variationthan species that react less to such manipula-tions?

The following table was compiled frompublished results and our own findings (markedwith *) (page 21).

There appears to be no correlation be-tween the vegetative response to the tempera-ture increase and the degree of genetic varia-tion. Nor is there a correlation between the tem-perature response and the breeding system. Theonly correlation was observed between thebreeding system and genetic variation: out-crossing species have the highest gene diver-sity.

Do arctic plant species in marginal popu-lations possess a different functional breedingsystem and less genetic variation than larger andmore centrally positioned populations?

Two of our species occur in marginal po-sitions: Honkenya peploides occurs marginallyin the Arctic, whereas Saxifraga hirculis occursmarginally in Denmark. The study yielded con-tradictory results: Honkenya displays low ge-netic variation within its central distribution andhigh gene diversity within its marginal position.The genetic variation of Saxifraga hirculus ishigh in the Arctic and low in the more marginalboreal area.

Do arctic plant species with an establishedpersistent seed bank possess higher genetic vari-ation that species without a seed bank?

There was information available on 27

Project coordinator:

Inger NordalUniversity of OsloDepartment of Biology,P.O.Box 1031Blindern N-0315 Oslo,Norway

Tel:+47 22 854 572Fax:+47 22 854 605E-mail:inger.nordal@bio.uio.no

5 project partnersYears 1999 - 2003

21

species with regard to their occurrence in seedbanks and their genetic variation. Ten speciesoccurred in the seed bank, 4 of which showedsome level of genetic variation and 6 no ge-netic variation. Of the 17 species not repre-sented in the seed bank, 7 displayed high ge-netic variation and 10 little to no genetic varia-tion. There hence seems to beno correlation between theoccurrence in seed banks andthe level of genetic variation.

Do arctic plant speciesdistributed in different areaspossess different levels of ge-netic variation, and can migra-tion and population historyexplain the pattern?

We found generally abun-dant genetic variation in thespecies with an outbreedingmating system. Very little ge-netic variation was found inthe species with a selfing mat-ing system. The study of Dryasintegrifolia/octopetala andSilene acaulis gave a clear phylogeographic sig-nal: The North Atlantic does not represent a

strong barrier to gene flow in contrast to theland bridge connecting the eastern and west-ern Greenlandic populations. This is also sup-ported by the fact that the populations of Sileneacaulis from Tromsø and Abisko are geneticallyless related than, for instance, the populationsfrom Tromsø and Jökuldalur in Iceland.

Do arctic plants with different demo-graphic turnover rates display different genetic

Species Vegetative response Ploidy level Genetic varitation Autodeposition Pollinationon temperature within population M = mixed matingincrease Arctic Boreal AL = outcrossers

AU = selfers

Ranunculus ++ 6x ? 0.1-0.3 Mnivalis

Silene acaulis +++ 2x +++ 0.01 AL (*)

Papaver ++ 6x-8x (+) 0.9-1.0 (*) AU (*)radicatum (*)

Oxyria digyna + 2x ? 0.7 M

Saxifraga 0 8x +++ 0.0-0.2 ALoppositifolia

Honkenya +++ (*) 4x +++ + (*) 0 (*) AL (*)peploides (*)

Saxifraga ++ (*) 4x ++ (*) + (*) 0 (*) AL/Mhirculus (*)

Campanula 0 (*) 4x + (*) 1.0 (*) AU (*)uniflora

Dryas + 2x +++ 0.4 Moctopetala (*)

22

population structure?The short duration of the project did not

allow for the monitoring of individual plants,to directly determine average plant age and

turnover rates. The following table is compiledfrom our results (marked with *) and othersources. •

The project established a Nordic researchnetwork focusing on the responses of thesubarctic birch ecotone to the rapid

changes in climate and land use practices. Itwas useful to prepare and maintain a joint EUproject about the sustainable utilisation ofsubarctic birch forests in a changing environ-ment called “Human interaction on the moun-tain birch ecosystem; implications for sustain-able utilisation” (HIBECO).

Climate and insects

Birch forests that form the alpine or arctic treelines are unique to northwestern Europe. Com-parative remote sensing studies have revealeda change in vegetation over the last 40 years inFinnmarksvidda, northern Norway. Blueberry

Human impact and sustainableutilisation of subarctic birchforests in a changing environment

(Vaccinium myrtillus) and dwarf cornell (Cornussuecica) are currently more common than 40years ago. In contrast, the lichens preferred byreindeer have decreased in abundance. Thereason for this change is believed to be a com-bination of changed climate and changes inhuman activity in the area, such as overgrazingby reindeer. Similarly, there has been an in-crease in the extent of birch forests in some ar-eas as a result of climate change and better con-ditions for birch regeneration. As a result, thecoverage of mountain birch forests at Maze inFinnmarksvidda, Norway, has increased byabout 90% during the last 45 years.

Birch forests are usually dominated byrelatively young trees. Only a small proportionare more than 100 years old, and different ageclasses dominate in different areas. The reason

Project coordinator:

Kari LaineBotanical Gardens,University of OuluP.O. Box 333FIN-90571 Oulu, Finland

Tel:+358 8 5531571Fax:+358 8 5531584E-mail:kari.laine@oulu.fi

10 project partnersYears 1999 – 2003

Species Generation time Level of genetic variation Breeding system

Saxifraga hirculus M * +++ * AL *

S. oppositifolia L +++ AL

Silene acaulis L * ++ * AL *

Lychnis alpina S * ++ * M *

Dryas octopetala L * ++ * M *

Honckenya peploides L * +++ * AL *

Papaver radicatum S * + * AU *

Campanula uniflora S * + * AU *

23

CLIMATE CAN BE ATHREAT TO BIRCH

HUMAN-BIRCH

RELATIONSHIP IS SEEN

AS A CRUCIAL PART OF

THE LOCAL LIVELIHOOD

SOAGIS SÀLLENII –BIRCH THE PROVIDER

for this is the recurrent outbreaks of various in-sects than can kill individual stems, local standsor, in some cases, even areas of several hun-dred hectares of birch woodland. Different in-sects are important in different areas: in coastalareas the winter moth (Operophtera brumata)and microlepidopterans (Argyresthia retinella)are the most important, while the autumnalmoth (Epirrita autumnata) is the most importantin more continental areas. Cold winter tempera-tures (below –35 oC) kill the eggs of autumnalmoths and restrict insect outbreaks both geo-graphically and locally. The outbreaks do notoccur at regular intervals in the more continen-tal areas in eastern Fennoscandia, and forestson valley floors are often saved due to tempera-ture inversion.

The work done during the HIBECO projectenhances our possibilities to predict the risksof insect outbreaks under changing climate indifferent parts of northern Europe. Higher win-ter temperatures will increase the frequency ofinsect outbreaks in continental areas, but maynot affect the defoliation risk in oceanic areas.On the other hand, the rising summer tempera-

tures may restrict the area and intensity of out-breaks due to increased pressure from the natu-ral enemies of defoliating insects. The outbreaksin different areas are often, but not always, syn-chronous over large areas. A high degree of in-breeding of Betula pubescens population withthe dwarf birch (Betula nana) has been shown.One of the important findings from the studywas that birch individuals with a polycormic(multi-stemmed) growth form were much moreresistant to insect attacks than monocormic (sin-gle-stemmed) trees. This is thought to be due tothe more effective inbreeding of dwarf birch inpolycormic trees than in monocormic trees andthe better defence against insect attacks in theBetula nana population.

Climate may also be a direct threat tobirch. At present, the injuries by extreme win-ter and spring temperatures are of relativelysmall and local importance, but this type ofthreat may become more important in the fu-ture with the changing climate. The presentstudy has shown that especially the southernalpine birch ecotypes may be more subject tospring frost damage at present than before be-

cause they lose their hardiness too early. Thisdamage may lead to reduced growth during thefollowing season. On the other hand, moun-tain birches show marked phenotypic plastic-ity in their phenology and other characteristics.This may improve the ability of mountain birchto cope with changing climate. A transplantstudy indicated that the northern coastal birchprovenances are better able to adapt to differ-ent photoperiods and temperature changes thanbirch of more continental origin.

Reindeer and sheep

The number of reindeer in northern Fenno-scandia has undergone large spatial and tem-poral variation. Many recent studies indicatethat the pastures are overgrazed. A review ofthe existing literature on experimental studiesof reindeer grazing on different pasture com-ponents shows consistent reduction of lichencoverage in grazed areas. Birch tends to havelower coverage or biomass, lower height andlower seedling density in grazed areas, whilegrasses tend to have a higher coverage andbiomass in grazed areas. In the more oceanicparts of northern Europe, sheep often browsein mountain birch forests. Heavy grazing bysheep in Iceland has resulted in not only veg-etation damage, but also widespread erosion,

which may be very difficult to redress.Parallel experiments were carried out in

the HIBECO project in Finland, Scotland, Ice-land and Greenland to study the effects of theseverity and timing of simulated sheep/reindeerbrowsing on birch saplings. The overall indica-tions from these experiments were that simu-lated browsing in winter was the least detrimen-tal to the regrowth of birch. The spring and earlysummer effects were mostly intermediate, whilelate summer browsing had the most detrimen-tal effects on sapling growth. Increasing sever-ity of simulated browsing had increasingly det-rimental effects on growth particularly in latesummer. In general, birch is very resilient tobrowsing and capable of partial compensatorygrowth. However, if the browsing continues formore than a few years, it is likely that the ef-fects become increasingly apparent as the re-sources of the saplings are repeatedly depleted.

Past and contemporary use ofmountain birch resources

The land use changes related to cultivation andreindeer herding have been monitored regularlyin the Maze and Ohcejohka regions since the1960s, even before the initiation of the present

24

25

study. An emphasis was placed on monitoringthe vegetation cover, which shows the impactsof land use changes ranging from meadows toreforested meadow forests and from heat for-ests to meadow forests. However, the lichenforests at higher altitudes remained despite ap-parent overgrazing by reindeer. The history ofhuman settlements and traditional use of birchforest resources was investigated through inter-views. A questionnaire was used to collect in-formation from the local population: the abo-riginal Sami and immigrant Norwegians andFinns. The HIBECO research team completedmore than 140 interviews with individual andinstitutional users of mountain birch in north-ernmost Finland, Norway and Sweden in com-munities with Finnish, Norwegian, Sami andSwedish populations. For example, the emer-gence of Maze in Norway was identified as animportant location for both reindeer herdingduring the winter and the agricultural settle-ment of the 300 to 400 inhabitants. A furtheranalysis of age and gender structure revealedsocietal and cultural shifts in the Sami commu-nity, which had become more diversified. Dur-ing the same period, Maze experienced a shiftfrom reindeer herding with reliance on localrenewable source, including birch forests, intoa highly concentrated but limited agriculturalsector and a small but strong sector based ontourism. These activities had an impact on thesocio-cultural life of the community. Land usepractices, such as birch utilisation, have con-

siderably decreased with respect to the use ofbirch for fuel, construction and crafts.

The interviews indicate that the human-birch relationship is considered a crucial partof the local livelihood. Local residents claimunconstrained access to this resource as a rightand object to interference by government au-thorities. In this connection, extensive use andremoval of birch wood for sale by seasonalcabin owners is perceived as a threat to thecontinued availability of mountain birch forlocal use. As for the environmental conditions,the birch on the Finnmarksvidda plain is part ofthe northern timberline forests, and its repro-duction and growth are thus susceptible tochanges in its productivity for use by humansand domestic animals. Sami people have stress-ed that birch trees should be harvested betweenthe age of 20 and 40 years, possibly up to 60years, since the prime life expectancy of birchis up to 80 years. The use of intricate local en-vironmental knowledge in carefully selectingsuitable trees for use will maintain the high levelof productivity in the mountain birch ecosys-tem. In a separate study, long-term mechanicaltrampling combined with reindeer grazing wasfound to influence the structure and functionof vegetation and soils.

In Ohcejohka in Finland, a panel discus-sion between local stakeholders and externalscientists was organised on the use of moun-tain birch. This event was an attempt to bridgethe still existing information and knowledge gap

between users and re-searchers. Furthermore,a 30-minute video, en-titled “Soagis Sàllenii –Birch the Provider” anddepicting the intricaterelationship the Samihave with the mountainbirch was produced byMaria Sofia Aikio andNiillas A. Somby.

Based on an as-sessment of the inter-view material, some pro-posals were made con-

26

cerning for present practices and future possi-bilities of managing the use of mountain birchin northernmost Europe. There are obvious dif-ferences and conflicts of interest over appro-priate management systems at the local, re-gional and national levels.

Management of mountain birchforests

Logging and lowering of the water table forcultivation and farming have, through time, in-terfered with the natural growth of meadow for-ests and their species composition (biodiversity),especially in the river valleys. The rapid expan-sion of agricultural land, infrastructure and roadshave had an impact on the plant species com-position in the “swamp forests” dominated bybirch and willows in river valleys. On the otherhand, as a consequence of the abandonmentof cultivated fields, significant re-growth of birchforests has occurred, which has led to fewerspecies adapting to the semi-natural Sami land-scape and the agricultural landscape. Militarytraining has caused damage to the mountainbirch forest environment in the inland parts of

the Tromsø and Finnmark counties in Norway.Damage by off-road traffic is often of a lineartype. These tracks have caused soil erosion anddamage to wet mires, which may affect the habi-tats of waders, birds, insects and other animals.In heath-type forests, especially on the border-line between forests and treeless areas, over-grazing by reindeer and sheep has also been aproblem during the past decades. In order toknow more about how to manage the northernmountain birch forest systems, we have inter-viewed managers, farmers, reindeer herders,military officers and craft workers. Their sug-gestions may lead to more sustainable devel-opment of these forests, that is, use of the for-ests without destroying them in the long run.

Combined effects

The defoliation of mountain birch forests byinsects is obviously an important disturbancefactor in northern ecosystems, and a combina-tion of insect defoliation and heavy grazing by(semi)domestic animals may become a prob-lem. The risk of insect outbreaks and spring frostdamage may increase in certain areas if theminimum winter temperatures become higher.Sustainable sheep and reindeer herding inmountain birch forests requires lower animaldensities than currently found in many areas.Lower animal densities are essential for the re-covery of lichen pastures and birch seedlingestablishment, whereas moderate grazing mayimprove growth in established mountain birchforests. The results from the study indicate that,in the most heavily grazed areas, such as Mazeand Ohcejohka, sustainable land use wouldimply a temporarily reduced grazing pressure,but a slightly more intensive use of birch forestresources and agriculture. In Abisko, Sweden,sustainable tourism has been found to be a goodalternative, while in Iceland sheep grazing pres-sure must be reduced to allow birch regrowthin deforested areas. Tourism, in addition to tra-ditional forestry and reindeer herding, may alsobe a good alternative for sustainable develop-ment in northern Finland. •

27

An immense data set of the

variability of the Lake My-

vatn ecosystem in northern Ice-

land has been collected over the

last 25 years. This unique long-

term record of plants and animals

makes this lake a useful model for

assessing the climatic and human

impact on a subarctic ecosystem.

The time period is long enough to

cover the variability associated

with the population dynamics of

animals and to allow comparison

with climatic variables.

The highlight of the project

is the publication of a special Lake

Myvatn issue of Aquatic Ecology

with the title: “Ecology of Lake

Myvatn and the River Lax: Tem-

Short- and long-term fluctuations in animal populations inLake Myvatn – a model for climatic and human impact onthe ecosystem

poral and Spatial Variation” edited

by Árni Einarsson & Ramesh D.

Gulati. This is a collection of sci-

entific papers on the lake and its

surroundings, focusing on the spa-

tial and temporal aspects of its

ecology. We now have a compre-

hensive view of the long-term fluc-

tuations in the ecosystem and their

dynamics in the lake. This enables

us to assess the human impact on

the ecosystem much more effec-

tively than before.

We have been able to bring

together a huge amount of data on

the complex Lake Myvatn to evalu-

ate the temporal variation in the

biota on different time scales and

to focus more on the spatial vari-

Árni Einarsson

Institute of Biology,University of IcelandGrensasvegur 12IS-108 Reykjavik, Iceland

Fax:+354 5254616E-mail:myvatn@hi.is

15 project partnersYears 1999 - 2002

ation than has been possible be-

fore. We have been able to get a

clear picture of the groundwater

systems and how they are affected

by volcanic and human activities.

The role of the lake sediment in

providing nutrients to the lake has

been significantly clarified. Weather

patterns have been analysed and

the relation to the NAO (North

Atlantic Oscillation) examined,

indicating no directly observable

influence of this large-scale weather

pattern on the lake. The regular

oscillations of the lake biota have

also been described.

A major breakthrough is

that the driving force behind the

most prominent fluctuation has

28

been identified as consumer-re-

source interaction (insect larvae

interacting with their food resour-

ces) as opposed to predator-prey

interaction (insect larvae falling

prey to fish and predaceous in-

sects). Hypotheses about causal

relationship with other species

have been put forward. These will

stimulate further research.

The project addresses the

question of the effects of human

impact on this lake of great natu-

ral variability. The results will back

up the decisions concerning the

management of the lake, which

has been a focus of debates over

possible human impact during the

past three decades. •

Opportunities for human life in theNorth

– Living conditions of the inhabitantsof the Arctic –

T he Inuit and Sami populations inInuvialuit, Nunavut, Nunavik, Lab-rador, Greenland, Alaska, Chukotka,

Norway, Sweden and Finland and on the KolaPeninsula share a number of economic, culturaland technological conditions. This is especiallytrue of the traditional occupations on whichthese populations still base their livelihood,making themselves dependent on natural re-sources. However, the conditions affecting theindigenous populations in the Arctic changedrapidly during the past century. Many indig-enous people now combine paid work with tra-ditional activities, which has resulted in changesin their traditional lifestyles. This process hasnot always been successful. Indicators showhigher unemployment, lower income levels,poorer health and more social problems amongthe Inuit and Sami than among the rest of thepopulation in the countries in question. As aresult, it is important from the perspectives ofboth policy planning and research to be able todocument the present situation and any futurechanges in the living conditions inthese areas.

However, research on theliving conditions of the indigenouspeople in the Arctic has thus farbeen sporadic and, even at its best,dominated by regional interests.There is an obvious need for acomparative investigation of theindividual living conditions in thisarea. It is very important to createa new research design, whichwould include both the develop-ment of a set of indicators of liv-ing conditions adapted to the spe-

Survey of living conditions in theArctic: Inuit, Sami and theindigenous peoples in Chukotkaand on the Kola Peninsula

THE CONDITIONS

AFFECTING THE

INDIGENOUS

POPULATIONS IN THE

ARCTIC CHANGED

RAPIDLY DURING THE

PAST CENTURY

MANY INDIGENOUS

PEOPLE NOW MIX

TRADITIONAL ACTIVITIES

WITH PAID WORK

cific economic and cultural characteristics ofthe indigenous peoples and a statistical methodfor sampling in the Arctic. The expected out-comes of the project are as follows: (1) To de-velop a new research design for comparativeinvestigations of the living conditions of the Inuitand Sami populations in the Arctic. This willinclude the drawing up of a set of nominal andoperationalised indicators of living conditionsbased on the theoretical literature, consultationswith aboriginal organisations and public hear-ings. (2) To make a dynamic social analysis ofthe causal relations between different individualresources and between individual well-beingand different political, economic, cultural andtechnological settings. (3) To map the livingconditions among the Inuit and Sami in Green-land, Inuvialuit, Nunavut, Nunavik, Labrador,Alaska, Chukotka, Sweden, Norway and Fin-land and on the Kola Peninsula. This is expectedto facilitate international and intranational com-parisons of the living conditions on a numberof dimensions. (4) To provide an improved ba-

Project coordinator:

Thomas AndersenStatistics Greenland,Box 1025,3900 Nuuk, Greenland

E-mail:THAN@gs.gh.gl

4 project partnerYears 1999 – 2002

30

sis for decision-making in relation to policyplanning and implementation. (5) To establishan interdisciplinary network of researchers andresearch institutions engaged in living condi-tions research in the Arctic. (6) To involve both

indigenous and non-indigenous postdoc re-searchers, PhD candidates and undergraduatesin the project. •

The aim of the project was to investigatethe sustainability and living and farmingconditions of the Norse culture in south-

western Greenland by using the geologicalrecord. A special emphasis was placed on study-ing the possible impacts on the landscapecaused by the use of land for grazing and agri-culture under the marginal and changing con-ditions in Greenland. The Norse were farmersand Vikings living in Greenland from 985 ADonwards, until they disappeared from the area500 years later.

Norse settlement

Icelandic sagas and historical and archaeologi-cal evidence indicate that a Norse colony wasfounded in southern Greenland by Eric the Redand other settlers from Iceland in 985 AD. TheNorse disappeared from the settlement 500years later. Despite a large number of studiesperformed onshore in the area of the easternand western Norse settlements, the ultimatecause for the loss of the settlement has not yetbeen found. Explanations proposed for the dis-

Life of the Norse in southwesternGreenland in 985-1500:Influence of environmentalchange on sustainability andfarming conditions

A NORSE COLONY WAS

FOUNDED IN SOUTHERN

GREENLAND BY ERIC THE

RED FROM ICELAND 985AD

appearance of the Norse population includeclimatic change, decline of shipping trade withIceland and Europe, raids by European pirates,competition with immigrating Inuits and dis-ease.

Medieval Icelandic sources report that,after the first period of colonisation, sea ice offsoutheastern Greenland significantly expanded,causing growing problems to Norse shippingbetween Iceland and Greenland. Numerousindications have been found on the northernhemisphere pointing to severe climate deterio-ration between about 1350 and 1850 AD (LittleIce Age), following the end of the MedievalWarm Period or Climatic Optimum (c. 900 –1350 AD). As described by Dansgaard et al.(1989), the cold climate conditions revealed bythe ice core records from central Greenlandwere characterised by dry and very stormyweather conditions. Stuiver et al. (1995) foundin their study of the GISP2 Greenland ice corethat the Little Ice Age cold conditions prevailedbetween ca. 1350 and 1800 AD, with the ex-tremes of low temperature dated at 1720 AD.They dated the Medieval Climatic Optimum

Project coordinator:

Naja MikkelsenGeological Survey ofDenmark and GreenlandThoravej 82400 Copenhagen

Tel:+ 45 38 14 23 64Fax:+ 45 38 14 20 50E-mail:nm@geus.DK

8 project partnersYears 2001 – 2002

31

peak at 975 AD, i.e. close to the time of theNorse settlement in southern Greenland. How-ever, there has been no conclusive evidencefor a causal link between the initiation of theLittle Ice Age climate deterioration and the lossof both the western and eastern settlements ofthe Norse culture until now.

Changes in environment

Marginal areas, such as those in southern Green-land, can be crucially influenced by either ex-tensive agricultural land use or even small-scaleclimatic changes or a combination of both. Thepresent research project investigated thechanges in the environment for the Norse colo-nisation of Greenland, covering the period from985 to 1500 AD, and related these environmen-tal changes to variations in the climatic condi-tions and the effects of human activities. A bet-ter understanding of the disappearance of theNorse from Greenland around 1500 is expectedto be achieved by a detailed study of the coastalzone around Søndre Igaliko, a small but wellestablished Norse community in the easternsettlement. •

The arctic environment has long beenconsidered unspoiled and inexhaustible,but the consequences of trans-bound-

ary contaminants and resource exploitation arebecoming an increasing concern. An image ofthe arctic communities as hunters and trappersliving in traditional interdependency with theenvironment makes way to a concept of a mod-ernised society. There has been a boom in min-

Development of methodologiesfor the evaluation of thesocioeconomic andenvironmental consequences ofmineral and energy industries inthe Arctic and Subarctic

eral and energy industries in the arctic regionsduring the last few decades. Industrial devel-opment has severely affected traditional livingin many small settlements in the Arctic, e.g. inArctic Canada, Arctic Russia and Alaska. Min-eral and energy industries are on the agenda,but not yet in operation, in some other arcticregions, too.

As the Arctic Council and local commu-

Project coordinator:

Rasmus O. RasmussenNORS - North AtlanticRegional StudiesRoskilde UniversityBygning 21.2,Postbox 260DK-4000 Roskilde,Denmark

Tel:+45 4674 2137Fax:+45 4674 3031E-mail:rasmus@ruc.dk

10 project partnersYears 2001 – 2002

32

33

OVERVIEW OF THE

CONSEQUENCES OF

MINING ACTIVITIES AND

ENERGY PRODUCTION

IN THE CIRCUMPOLAR

NORTH

nities give high priority to sustainable develop-ment, the need for knowledge concerning thepossible consequences of mineral and energyindustries has increased. Some of the environ-mental consequences of the extraction of min-erals and gas in the unprotected arctic environ-ment are covered by international programmesfor environmental protection strategies. Mean-while, the consequences concerning socioeco-nomic status, employment and social affairs arepaid less attention. However, these are key fac-tors in developing the visions of comprehen-sive sustainable development in the Arctic.

The project arranged a Nordic workshopand an international conference with wideNordic participation with a focus on the devel-opment of methodologies for the evaluation ofthe socioeconomic and environmental conse-quences of mineral and energy industries in theArctic. A very successful workshop was held atthe Kola Science Centre, Apatity, Russia, on May8 - 12, 2002. A total of 50 participants from thecircumpolar world, including scientists from themajor research centres with a northern focus,met for four days to discuss issues of commoninterest. The purpose of the joint NARP/NATO

workshop was to consider the consequencesof mining activities and energy production inthe Circumpolar North with special focus onmethodologies for evaluating the long- andshort-term socio-economic and environmentalconsequences of the activities. Based on com-parative analyses of experiences from regionswith different environmental, social, economicand political situations, the goal has been tooutline a set of general recommendations re-garding the preparation of future booms in min-ing and energy industries in the Arctic, as wellas suggestions regarding appropriate environ-mental precautions and political interventions.

The workshop aimed at crossing scientificboundaries both between countries and be-tween disciplines. A short-term goal was to cre-ate broader understanding to establish a net-work between scientists and to outline commongoals and methodologies that may support thelong-term process towards sustainable devel-opment in the Arctic. •

34

The northern and northwestern

periphery of Europe is known

for its fisheries, scenic beauty and

rather sparse human population.

Forestry in this region is not usu-

ally counted as one of its main

attributes. Nevertheless, consider-

able forestry activities are being

carried out. Activities such as pro-

tection of the mountain birch

woodlands of northern Scandina-

via, protection of the forest rem-

nants in Iceland, Scotland and Ire-

land and afforestation with a vari-

ety of goals in northern and coastal

Norway and on the Atlantic is-

lands, including Greenland. Re-

search and extension play very

important roles in all these en-

deavours. Afforestation and for-

estry are increasingly important

factors in rural development in this

region, and protection of natural

forests and forest remnants are

important from the viewpoints of

both nature conservation and tour-

ism.

A successful workshop,

“The Forestry Beyond the Tim-

berline”, was held in Akureyri,

Iceland, on June 27-30, 2000. It

was attended by 54 participants

Forestry beyond the timberline: ecological and socio-economic factors affecting forestry in the context of ruraldevelopment in the North Atlantic region

from 13 countries. A total of 27

papers and 10 posters were pre-

sented. This was the largest sci-

entific conference on forestry held

in Iceland to date. Various papers

presented may have significance

for political decision-making. The

results of the workshop as a whole

can be summed up as follows:

Forests and forestry are no less

important to people living “be-

yond the timberline” in the North

Atlantic region than to people liv-

ing in forested countries. Apart

from being a source of wood and

other forest products, forests and

woodlands in this region serve

Thröstur Eysteinsson

Iceland Forest ServiceP.O. Box 98700 Egilsstadir, Iceland

Tel:+354 471 2100Fax:+354 471 2172E-mail:throstur@skogur.is

8 project partnersYears 1999 - 2000

important functions for conserva-

tion, recreation and shelter. Build-

ing up a forest resource through

afforestation can benefit rural

communities in many ways and

aid in the sustainable develop-

ment of those communities. The

proceedings were published as a

special issue of the “Skógræk-

tarriti ð ” (annals of the Icelandic

Forestry Association). •

Acknow

ledgements

The research on which this NARP Highlights publication is based has been supported by many

organizations. The Nordic Arctic Research Programme (NARP) acknowledges longstanding financial

support from the Nordic Council of Ministers. The 63 research and network projects included in it

also received substantial support from their respective home and partner institutions, which was important

for accomplishing all achievements required by the programme. Special thanks are due to the Nordic labo-

ratories for hosting students during their study visits and the Universities of Oulu, Akureyri and Tromsø for

hosting the three international NARP symposia in 2001, 2002 and 2003, respectively.

The Secretariat of the Nordic Council of Ministers is thanked for excellent co-operation during the pro-

gramme. Especially senior adviser Kate Runeberg from the Department of Education, Research and ICT is

thanked for all her advice and guidance. The help by research coordinator Morten Bennum is also much

appreciated. He helped at the implementation phase of the programme and in establishing the secretariat at

Thule Institute, University of Oulu.

The editor thanks all the project coordinators for fluent co-operation and for providing material for this

NARP highlight publication and those who provided additional illustrative material for the book. The de-

manding secretarial work of the programme has been done efficiently at Thule Institute, and special thanks

are due to Liisa Puijola for economic administration, to Kirsti Kallio and Tuija Siira for secretarial work, to

Pirjo Taskinen for web mastering, to Hannele Heikkilä-Tuomaala for design and to all those at Thule Institute

who assisted the secretariat.

The authors are grateful to Tuija Siira and Hannele Heikkilä-Tuomaala for their work in producing this

publication from drafts that still needed careful elaboration. The programme board members Dorete Bloch,

Níels Einarsson, Alf Håkan Hoel, Caroline Leck, Bente Aagaard Lomstein and Gert Mulvad are thanked for

longstanding commitment and co-operation during the NARP and constructive improvements of this publi-

cation, programme chair Matti Saarnisto is acknowledged for his leadership and guidance during the pro-

gramme. Finally, I wish to express my thanks to the numerous colleagues and

individuals who gave advice during the initiation of NARP.

Kari Strand Dr., docentSecretaryNordic Arctic Research Programme

NARP Highlights

Nordic Arctic Research Programme – Rapid Changes in the Arctic

Nordic Council of Ministers

The aim of the Nordic Arctic Research Programme (NARP) was to enhance Nordic competence

and research co-operation in three priority areas: Natural Processes - Land, Sea and Atmosphere;

Biological Diversity and Environmental Threats in the Arctic; and Living Conditions of the Inhab-

itants of the Arctic.

In this publication, we introduce the programme and some research results as a series of short

highlights provided by the project coordinators, to illustrate the diversity of the accomplishments

by the Nordic Arctic scienti�c community. Outstanding work on a variety of Arctic issues has

been done throughout the programme. The Nordic Arctic Research Programme supported espe-

cially networking and mobility between several research groups. A great number of young stu-

dents have greatly bene�ted from their study visits in Nordic laboratories, and there is an urgent

need to �nd funding for further collaboration. Also, co-operation with researchers from the Faroe

Islands, Greenland and Iceland has increased during the programme. The programme included

63 projects focusing equally on the above-mentioned three priority areas.

It has become clear during the course of the Nordic Arctic Research Programme that there is still

an urgent need for multidisciplinary scienti�c Arctic studies in the future. Especially the trends

and amplitudes of environmental change in the Arctic region are still poorly recorded, and many

feedback processes of change are not fully understood. The rapidly changing socio-economic

conditions in the Arctic require further scienti�c attention. More scientists and especially young

talented people should be involved in Arctic science in the future.

The programme was carried out during the period 1999-2003 and �nalised in 2004. The annual

budget was 6.2 million DKK, amounting to a total of 31 million. The programme hence provided

a particularly good opportunity for Nordic cooperation and networking of research. The secre-

tariat of the programme worked in Thule Institute at the University of Oulu.

More information is available at http://thule.oulu.�

THULE INSTITUTE / NARP

P.O. BOX 7300

FIN-90014 UNIVERSITY OF OULU

FINLAND

ISBN 951-42-7808-9