1. Indicateurs sur le genre,la pauvret et lenvironnementsur les pays africains2014African Development Bank Banque africaine de dveloppementGender, Poverty andEnvironmental Indicatorson African CountriesSpecial Feature Article on:Green growth and poverty alleviation:Risks and opportunities for AfricaArticle spcial sur le thme :Croissance verte et allgementde la pauvret : risques etopportunits pour l'Afrique

2. AfDB REGIONAL MEMBER COUNTRIES BYGROSS NATIONAL INCOME PER CAPITA IN 2012A) Low Income; $785 or lessBeninBurkina FasoBurundiCentral African Rep.ChadCongo Democratic Rep.EritreaEthiopiaGambiaGuineaGuinea BissauLiberiaMadagascarMalawiMaliMozambiqueNigerRwandaSierra LeoneSomaliaTanzaniaTogoUgandaZimbabweB) Lower Middle Income; $786-$3,115CameroonComorosCongoCote dIvoireDjiboutiEgyptAlgeriaAngolaBotswanaCarbo VerdeGhanaKenyaLesothoMauritaniaMoroccoNigeriaEquatorial GuineaGabonLibyaMauritiusNamibiaSeychellesSouth AfricaTunisiaC) Upper Middle Income; $3,116-$9,636Sao Tome and PrincipeSenegalSouth SudanSudanSwazilandZambia 3. Gender, Poverty andEnvironmental Indicatorson African CountriesIndicateurs sur le genre,la pauvret et lenvironnementsur les pays africains2014Volume XVAfrican Development BankBanque africaine de dveloppement 4. iiiGender, Poverty andEnvironmental Indicatorson African CountriesIndicateurs sur le genre,la pauvret et lenvironnementsur les pays africains2014Volume XVDivision des statistiques conomiques et socialesDpartement de la statistiqueEconomic and Social Statistics DivisionStatistics Department 5. ivThis document was prepared by the Economic and Social Statistics Division of the StatisticsDepartment at the African Development Bank. Designations employed in this publication do notimply the expression of any opinion on the part of the African Development Bank concerningthe legal status of any country or territory, or the delimitation of its frontiers. While every efforthas been made to present reliable information, the African Development Bank accepts noresponsibility whatsoever for any consequences of its use.Published by the:Economic and Social Statistics DivisionStatistics DepartmentAfrican Development BankTemporary Relocation Agency (TRA)BP 323, 1002 Tunis, BelvdreTunis, TunisiaTel.: (216) 71 103 325Fax: (216) 71 843 409Design/layout by Phoenix Design Aid,Printing by Scanprint, DenmarkISO 14001 certified and EMAS-approved.Ce document a t prpar par la Division des statistiques economiques et sociales duDpartement de la statistique de la Banque africaine de dveloppement. Les dnominationsemployes dans cette publication nimpliquent, de la part de la Banque africaine dedveloppement, aucune prise de position quant au statut juridique ou au trac des frontires despays. Aprs tant defforts raliss pour prsenter des informations aussi fiables que possible, laBanque africaine de dveloppement se dgage de toute responsabilit de lutilisation qui pourratre faite de ces donnes.Publi par:Division des statistiques conomiques et socialesDpartement de la StatistiqueBanque africaine de dveloppementAgence Temporaire de Relocalisation (ATR)BP 323, 1002 Tunis, BelvdreTunis, TunisieTl.: (216) 71 103 325Fax: (216) 71 843 409Design et mise en page : Phoenix Design Aid,Impression : Scanprint, DenmarkCertifi ISO 14001 et approuv par EMAS.E-mail: statistics@afdb.orgWeb site: http://www.afdb.org/statisticsCopyright 2014 African Development BankISSN 1563-437X 6. vPrefaceThis is the fifteenth volume of Gender, Poverty, and Environmental Indicators on AfricanCountries published by the Statistics Department of the African Development Bank Group.The publication also provides some information on the broad development trends relating togender, poverty and environmental issues in the 54 African countries.Gender, Poverty and Environmental Indicators on African Countries 2014 is divided in threemain parts: Part One presents a special feature article on Green growth and poverty alle-viation:Risks and opportunities for Africa. Part Two presents comparative cross-countrydata on Millennium Development Goals, Gender, Poverty and the Environment; and Part Threeprovides detailed country-specific data for each of the 54 countries.Cest le quinzime volume de Indicateurs sur le genre, la pauvret et lenvironnementsur les pays africains publi par le Dpartement des statistiques du Groupe de la Banqueafricaine de dveloppement. La publication fournit aussi des informations de faon gnralesur les tendances de dveloppement relatives aux problmatiques sur le genre, la pauvretet lenvironnement dans les 54 pays africains.Indicateurs sur le genre, la pauvret et lenvironnement sur les pays africains 2014comprend trois principales parties dont la premire prsente larticle spcial sur Croissanceverte et allgement de la pauvret : Risques et opportunits pour lAfrique. La deuximepartie prsente des donnes comparatives croises par pays sur les objectifs du millnairepour le dveloppement, le genre, la pauvret et lenvironnement ; et la troisime partie fournitdes donnes spcifiques dtailles pour chacun des 54 pays.The Staff TeamThe staff team was led by Beejaye Kokiland comprised Maurice Mubila, A. HilaireKadisha Mbiya, and Soltani Amina.The publication was prepared under thegeneral direction of Charles LeyekaLufumpaquipe de ProductionLquipe dirige par M. Beejaye Kokilcomprenait MM. Maurice Mubila, A.Hilaire Kadisha Mbiya, et Mlle SoltaniAmina. La publication a t ralise sousla direction de M. Charles LeyekaLufumpaPRODUCTION TEAMQUIPE DE PRODUCTION 7. viTable of Contentsdes matiresPreface . vPrface . vAbbreviations and Acronyms ixAbrviations et Acronymes . ixCountry Classification by Region/Grouping xClassification des pays par rgion/groupe . xPART I PARTIE ISPECIAL ARTICLE :Green growth and poverty alleviation: Risks and opportunities for Africa . 3ARTICLE SPECIAL :Croissance verte et allgement de la pauvret: Risques et opportunits pour lAfrique 17PART II PARTIE IICOMPARATIVE CROSS-COUNTRY TABLES TABLEAUX COMPARATIFS CROISES PAR PAYSTHE MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS LES OBJECTIFS DU MILLENNIUM POUR LE DEVELOPPEMENTProgress Towards Realizing the Millennium Development GoalsProgrs vers la ralisation des objectifs du millnaire pour le dveloppement 351. Eradication of Extreme Poverty and HungerEradiquer la pauvret extrme et la faim . 362. Achieve universal primary educationAssurer lducation primaire pour tous . 373. Promote gender equality and empower womenPromouvoir lgalit des sexes et lautonomisation des femmes 384. Reduce children under 5 years mortalityRduire la mortalit des enfants de moins de 5 ans . 395. Improve meternal healthAmliorer la sant maternelle . 406. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseasesCombattre le VIH/sida, le paludisme et dautres maladies . 417. Ensure environmental sustainabilityAssurer un environnement durable . 428. Develop a global partnership for developmentMettre en place un partenariat mondial pour le dveloppement . 43Section 1. GENDER GENRE1.1 Mid-Year Population EstimatesPopulation estime en milieu anne . 461.2 Fertility RatesTaux de fcondit 471.3 Reproductive HealthSant de la reproduction . 481.4 Contraceptive Use by MethodUsage des contraceptifs par mthode 49 8. vii1.5 Contraception Use by Age GroupUsages des contraceptifs par groupe dges 501.6 Life ExpectancyEsprance de vie . 511.7 Infant Mortality RatesTaux de mortalit infantile 521.8 Access to SchoolingAccs au systme scolaire 531.9 Internal Efficiency and IlliteracyEfficacit interne et analphabtisme . 541.10 Gross School Enrolment RatiosTaux bruts de scolarisation 551.11 Teaching StaffPersonnel enseignant . 561.12 Participation of WomenParticipation des femmes 571.13 Gender EmpowermentGender Empowerment . 58Section 2. POVERTY PAUVRET2.1 Human Development IndexIndice de dveloppement humain . 602.2 Population in Poverty (%)Population en pauvret (%) . 612.3 Income DistributionRpartition du revenu . 622.4 Nutrition StatusStatut de la nutrition . 632.5 Health StatusStatut de la sant . 642.6 Access to Health ServicesAccs aux services de sant . 652.7 Mortality TrendsTendance de la mortalit . 662.8 Health Services PersonnelPersonnel des services de sant 67Section 3. ENVIRONMENT ENVIRONNEMENT3.1 Urbanization ProfileProfil de lurbanisation . 703.2 Forest Cover and StructureEtendue et structure des forts 713.3 Land Use (000 ha)Surperficies utilises (000 ha) . 723.4 Water Resources and WithdrawalsRessources en eau et retraits 733.5 Industrial EmissionsEmissions industrielles 743.6 Energy UseUtilisation de lnrgie . 753.7 Population and Forest ResourcesPopulation et ressources en fort . 76 9. viiiPART III PARTIE IIICOUNTRY TABLES TABLEAUX PAR PAYS1. Algeria - Algrie 782. Angola . 823. Benin - Bnin . 864. Botswana . 905. Burkina Faso . 946. Burundi . 987. Cabo Verde 1028. Cameroon - Cameroun . 1069. Central African Rep. - Rp. Centrafricaine . 11010. Chad - Tchad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11411. Comoros - Comores . 11812. Congo . 12213. Congo, Dem. Rep. - Congo, Rp. Dm 12614. Cte dIvoire . 13015. Djibouti . 13416. Egypt - Egypte . 13817. Equatorial Guinea - Guine Equatoriale . 14218. Eritrea - rythre . 14619. Ethiopia - thiopie . 15020. Gabon . 15421. Gambia - Gambie 15822. Ghana . 16223. Guinea - Guine . 16624. Guinea Bissau - Guine Bissau . 17025. Kenya 17426. Lesotho 17827. Liberia - Libria . 18228. Libya - Libye . 18629. Madagascar 19030. Malawi . 19431. Mali 19832. Mauritania - Mauritanie . 20233. Mauritius - Maurice . 20634. Morocco - Maroc . 21035. Mozambique . 21436. Namibia - Namibie . 21837. Niger 22238. Nigeria - Nigria 22639. Rwanda 23040. So Tome & Principe . 23441. Senegal - Sngal . 23842. Seychelles 24243. Sierra Leone . 24644. Somalia - Somalie 25045. South Africa - Afrique du Sud 25446. South Sudan - Soudan du Sud 25847. Sudan - Soudan . 26248. Swaziland 26649. Tanzania - Tanzanie 27050. Togo . .27451. Tunisia - Tunisie 27852. Uganda - Ouganda . 28253. Zambia - Zambie . .28654. Zimbabwe 290 10. Definition of Statistical Terms 297Dfinition des termes statistiques . 305Data sources . .316Sources des donnes . 317ixAbbreviations and Acronyms Abrviations et acronymesAfDB African Development BankAIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency SyndromeAMU Arab Maghreb UnionBAD Banque africaine de dveloppementCEA Commission conomique pour lAfriqueCen-SAD The Community of Sahel-SaharanStatesCEDEAO Communaut conomique des tats delAfrique de lOuestCEMAC Communaut conomique et Montairede lAfrique CentraleCOMESA Common Market of Eastern and South-ernAfricaECA Economic Commission for AfricaECOWAS Economic Community Of West AfricanStatesFAO Food and Agriculture Organization ofthe United NationsFNUAP Fonds des Nations Unies pour la popu-lationOCDE/CAD Organisation de coopration et dedveloppement conomiques/ComitdAssistance au DveloppementOECD/DAC Organisation for Economic Co-operationand Development/ Development Assis-tanceCommitteeODA Official Development AssistanceONUSIDA Programme commun des Nations unissur le VIH/SIDAPMR Pays membres rgionaux de la BADRMCs Regional Member Countries of the AfDBSADC Southern African Development Commu-nityUDEAC Union Douanire des Etats de lAfri-queCentraleUEMOA Union conomique et montaire ouestafricaineUMA Union du Maghreb ArabeUNAIDS The Joint United Nations Programmeon HIV/AIDSUNFPA United Nations Population FundUNICEF United Nations Childrens FundUNESCO United Nations Educational and Scien-tificOrganizationWAEMU West African Economic & MonetaryUnionWHO World Health OrganizationUnits - Unitsm3 Cubic metre / mtre cubeDR Donnes les plus rcentesha HectareKm2 Square Kilometre / Kilomtre carrKey Symbols - Principaux symboles Data not availableDonne non disponible- Magnitude zeros / Grandeur nulle0 or 0.0 Magnitude less than half of the unitGrandeur infrieure la moiti de lunitn.a. Not applicable / Non applicable 11. xCountry Classification by Region/GroupingClassification des pays par rgion/groupeCentral Africa - Afrique centraleCameroon - CamerounCent. Afr. Rep. - Rp. Centraf.Chad - TchadCongoCongo, DRC - Congo, RDCEquat. Guinea - Guine quat.GabonSo Tom & PrincipeEast Africa - Afrique de lEstBurundiComoros - ComoresDjiboutiEritrea - rythreEthiopia - thiopieKenyaRwandaSeychellesSomalia - SomalieSudan - SoudanTanzania - TanzanieUganda - OugandaNorth Africa - Afrique du NordAlgeria - AlgrieEgypt - EgypteLibya - LibyeMauritania - MauritanieMorocco - MarocTunisia - TunisieSouthern Africa - Afrique australeAngolaBotswanaLesothoMadagascarMalawiMauritiusMozambiqueNamibia - NamibieSouth Africa - Afrique du SudSwazilandZambia - ZambieZimbabweWest Africa - Afrique de lOuestBenin - BninBurkina FasoCabo VerdeCte dIvoireGambia - GambieGhanaGuinea - GuineGuinea-Bissau - Guine-BissauLiberia - LibriaMaliNigerNigeria - NigriaSenegal - SngalSierra LeoneTogoAmu - UmaAlgeria - AlgrieLibya - LibyeMauritania MauritanieMorocco - MarocTunisia - TunisieCen -SADBenin - BninBurkina FasoCent. Afr. Rep - Rp. Centrafr.Chad - TchadComoros - ComoresCte dIvoireDjiboutiEgypt - gypteEritrea - rythreGambia - GambieGhanaGuinea - GuineGuinea-Bissau - Guine-BissauKenyaLiberia - LibriaLibya - LibyeMaliMauritania - MauritanieMorocco - MarocNigerNigeria - NigriaSo Tom & PrincipeSenegal - SngalSierra LeoneSomalia - SomalieSudan - SoudanTogoTunisiaComesaBurundiComoros - ComoresCongo, DRC - Congo, RDCDjiboutiEgypt - EgypteEritrea - rythreEthiopia - thiopieKenyaLibya - LibyeMadagascarMalawiMauritius - MauriceRwandaSeychellesSudan - SoudanSwazilandUganda - OugandaZambia - ZambieZimbabweEcowas - CedeaoBenin - BninBurkina FasoCabo VerdeCte dIvoireGambia - GambieGhanaGuinea - GuineGuinea-Bissau - Guine-BissauLiberia - LibriaMaliNigerNigeria - NigriaSenegal - SngalSierra LeoneTogoSadcAngolaBotswanaCongo, DRC - Congo, RDCLesothoMadagascarMalawiMauritius - MauriceMozambiqueNamibia - NamibieSeychellesSouth Africa - Afrique du SudSwazilandTanzania - TanzanieZambia - ZambieZimbabweUdeac/CemacCameroon - CamerounCent. Afr. Rep. - Rp. Centraf.Chad - TchadCongoEquat. Guinea - Guine quat.GabonWaemu/ UemoaBenin - BninBurkina FasoCte dIvoireGuinea-Bissau - Guine-BissauMaliNigerSenegal - SngalTogo 12. 1Part/Partie 1Special Feature ArticleArticle dintrt spcial 13. GREEN GROWTH AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION: RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFRICA3Green growth and poverty alleviation:Risks and opportunities for Africagrowth on the continent must take account offive dimensions: consumers, resources, tal-ent,capital, and innovation (Ibid). The AfricanDevelopment Bank (AfDB) (2013a) recognizesthat, in order to be sustainable, the devel-opmentagenda must move away from thebusiness-as-usual (BAU) scenario. Hence,there is no alternative to green growth. Inthe Banks view, green growth means takingaction today to avoid losses and costs in thenear future.Future costs may increase: (i) by delayinginvestment in education; (ii) from contin-uednatural resource degradation; and(iii) from expanding urban settlementsin areas vulnerable to floods or erosionwith infrastructure that is not sufficientlyresilient (AfDB) (2013a: 32).Departure from the BAU development modelis a course that African leaders have ac-cepted.In his keynote address during SouthAfricas Green Growth Summit in 2010, Pres-identZuma observed: We have no optionbut to manage our natural resources in asustainable way... We have no choice butto develop a green economy (Zuma, 2010:4). So important is divergence from the BAUapproach that the AfDBs Ten-Year Strate-gy(2013 to 2022) contains two objectivesbased on inclusiveness and green growth.Green growth offers an opportunity to de-signinfrastructure and manage urban spac-esand natural capital in a way that doesnot degrade the continents environmentand economic base (AfDB, 2013a). To con-tinueon the resource-intensive path takenin other parts of the world would create abiocapacity deficit and a range of environ-ABSTRACTGovernments in Africa are eager to min-imizethe risks associated with greengrowth and enhance the opportunities itbrings. Green growth is a departure fromthe resource-intensive business-as-usualgrowth of the past that has led to the de-pletionof natural and other resources. Themain risks discussed in this paper are lowlevels of green growth readiness; potentialfor dumping entry-level clean technologies;and conditional trade for green growth. Op-portunitiesinclude the completion of old re-newableenergy mega-projects and a chanceto build climate-resilient infrastructure andsettlements. The paper also discusses poli-cyinitiatives such as readiness parameters;mainstreaming green growth; avoiding a one-size-fits-all approach; prioritization of large,quick-win endeavours; better institutional co-ordination;and developing a Green GrowthIndex (GGI) for monitoring and evaluation.Key words: green growth, poverty reduction,Africa, risks, opportunitiesINTRODUCTIONGreen growth is not a new phenomenon(Savaresi, 2012). However, the financialmeltdown of 2008 has triggered the recentemphasis on the topic, as global leadershave decided to tackle long-standing en-vironmentalchallenges, such as food andenergy, along with the economic crisis. Africahas been designated the new global growthfrontier (Accenture, 2010), but due diligenceis needed when green growth initiatives areundertaken, particularly those aligned toexternal interests. The transition to greenThe transitionto green growthon the conti-nentmust takeaccount of fivedimensions: con-sumers,resourc-es,talent, capital,and innovation.Green growthoffers an oppor-tunityto designinfrastructureand manageurban spaces andnatural capital ina way that doesnot degradethe continentsenvironment andeconomic base. 14. GREEN GROWTH AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION: RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFRICA4mental decay problems. By contrast, greengrowth presents Africa an opportunity todevelop resource-efficientgrowth pathways,through the use of proven and cost-effectivetechnologies.While abundant opportunities exist, greengrowth is not without risks to African econ-omies.Two examples are: (1) the forced shiftfrom exporting bottled wine to bulk contain-ersin South Africa (Ntombela, 2013) that ledto job loss, and (2) the food miles saga inwhich the East African Community (EAC) hor-ticultureindustry dumped flowers in the mid-tolate-2000s (Garside et al., 2008). However,the cost of doing nothing is huge for Africa,whose resource-based sectorsagricul-ture,mining, forestry and fisheries (UNECA,2012a)remain the largest employment pro-viders.Green growth should maintain andenhance the natural capital that will consti-tutean important source of jobs, income andlivelihoods for the vast majority of the Africanpeople (ibid.: 3).GREEN GROWTH: CURRENTDEBATES AND UNDERSTANDINGBowen and Fankhauser (2011) observe thatgreen growth has become a buzzword andslogan in the policy and academic commu-nities.Similarly, Schmalensee (2012) notesthat ... wonderful slogans dont necessarilylead to wonderful actionsor even sensibleones.... Indeed, it is not just that green growthlacks a commonly accepted definition; rather,different groups often utilize the phrase tomean or imply different things (ibid.: S2).Green growth has been linked to environ-mentalsustainability, low carbon transition,climate-resilient growth and development,and a new impetus for economic develop-Table 1: Defining green growthAuthor (Year/Page) Green Growth Definition/ExplanationsWorld Bank (2012: 100) Green growth is about transforming our production and consumption processesfrom a dirty, environmentally unsustainable model to a sustainable one. Like anystructural transition, it inevitably entails transition costs, which green growthpolicies must seek to minimize.OECD (2013: 2) Green growth promotes a cost-effective and resource-efficient way of guidingsustainable production and consumption choices. When designed to reducepoverty and manage nearterm trade-offs, green growth can help developingcountries achieve sustainable development.AfDB (2013b: 1-2) Green growth protects livelihoods; improves water, energy and food security;promotes the sustainable use of natural resources; and spurs innovation, jobcreation and economic development. The Bank will support green growth byfinding paths to development that ease pressure on natural assets, while bettermanaging environmental, social and economic risks. Priorities in reaching greengrowth include building resilience to climate shocks, providing sustainableinfrastructure, creating ecosystem services and making efficient and sustainableuse of natural resources (particularly water, which is central to growth but mostaffected by climate change).Sierra LeoneGovernment Agendafor Prosperity (AfDB2013a: 14)Green growth means developing infrastructure, energy and cities sustainably;managing renewable and non-renewable natural resources efficiently; andbuilding resilience for the benefit of citizens.South AfricanGovernment (DEA,2013: 10)Green growth means a sustainable development path that is based onaddressing the interdependence between economic growth, social protectionand natural ecosystems. 15. GREEN GROWTH AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION: RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFRICA5ment. What then is green growth? Table 1summarizes some of the definitions.The Organisation for Economic Cooperationand Development (OECD) has been drivingthe green growth agenda since 2008. In theOrganisations view, Governments that putgreen growth at the heart of development canachieve sustainable economic growth andsocial stability, safeguard the environment,and conserve resources for future genera-tions(OECD, 2013: 2). Such reconciliationof economic development and environmentalsustainability prevents natural capital deg-radationand climate change, and promotessocial security, outcomes that are critical forAfrica. The World Bank (2012: 1) describescurrent growth patterns as not only unsus-tainable,but deeply inefficient.Green growth discussions inevitably includedegradation of natural capital and climatechange. The United Nations EnvironmentalProgramme (UNEP) report presents statisticson the costs of climate change adaptation:by 2020, annual global adaptation costsfrom emissions could amount to US$7 to15 billion. Even where the emissions gap isclosed and we get onto a pathway to holdwarming below 2C, by 2050, adaptationcosts could hover around US$ 35 billion peryear (UNEP, 2013a: v). For Africa, the reportestimates an annual bill of US$50 billion by2050; US$350 billion by 2070 is possibleif the trend in global warming continues.According to the report, essential sectorssuch as water supply, infrastructure and ag-riculturewill demand the highest adaptationcosts in SSA.Given the central role and relevance of theAfDB on the continent, the Banks defini-tionsof green growth and related elementsare used in this study. The AfDBs Ten-YearStrategy for 2013 to 2022 seeks to promoteinclusive growth and an emphasis on sus-tainabilitythrough a gradual transition towardgreen growth. Based on the AfDBs definition,green growth extends beyond reducing car-bonemissions and must contain elementsthat reduce intergenerational poverty andincome inequality. According to the AfDB,green growth means making smart in-vestmentsnow that address food security,sustainable infrastructure, energy and urbansettlement; that better manage natural re-sources(land, fish stock, water and forests);and that build resilience to natural disastersand climate change.The AfDB recognizes that green growthbuilding blocks are already in place on thecontinent (AfDB, 2012: 155), including na-tionalplans of action for adaptation, sus-tainableland management, integrated waterresource management and other initiativescreated to promote resource use efficien-cy.Strategic Environmental Assessments(SEA), for example, may assist in evaluatingthe impact of development on natural capitalas the UNEPs Threshold T21 model gainstraction, given that it has already been usedby Kenya and South Africa. The AfDB (Ibid)advocates green growth mainstreaming intodevelopment planning. This means the rightinstitutions must be put in place at the righttime, and provide the right incentives for pub-licand private green investments. PovertyReduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs), coun-tryvisions and national development plansare critical entry platforms for green growthmainstreaming. To move swiftly toward greengrowth, the AfDB suggests that African coun-triesand associated organizations have diag-nosticsin support of efficient and sustainabledevelopment trajectories; revamp policies,incentives and enforcement capacities; ex-pandfinancing options; and monitor, trackand adapt development efforts.Monitoring, tracking and willingness to adaptare instrumental in devising a Green GrowthIndex (GGI). The use of gross domestic prod-uct(GDP) as a measure of development suc-cesshas been challenged (AfDB, 2012). Tothis end, a GGI would incorporate new indi-catorssuch as the state of natural capital;resource efficiency; and the resilience of live-lihoodsand sectors to environmental, social,economic and political shocks and hazards....by 2020, annualglobal adapta-tioncosts fromemissions couldamount to US$7to 15 billion.Even where theemissions gap isclosed and we getonto a pathwayto hold warmingbelow 2C, by2050, adaptationcosts could hoveraround US$ 35billion per year. 16. 1990 1999 2005 2008 2010 2015GREEN GROWTH AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION: RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFRICA6East Asia and the PacicLatin America and CaribbeanSouth Asia1990 1999 2005 2008 2010 2015ENDEMIC POVERTY, EMPLOYMENTAND GREEN GROWTHEndemic poverty is a major challenge in Afri-ca,particularly its impact on women (Zuma,2013). The Millennium Development Goals(MDGs) have been the most effective in-strumentto fight poverty, but the situationremains critical in Sub-Saharan Africa. Forexample, of the 1.2 billion people reportedto be living below the poverty line (less thanUS$1.25 a day) in 2010, 48% were in Afri-ca.The continued economic slowdown afterthe 2008 global financial crisis has meantthat people are still losing their jobs. Greengrowth is viewed as a mechanism that mayaddress perennial intergenerational poverty.In an assessment of Africas progress towardattaining the MDGs, the AfDB (2013c: xiii)observed a mixed pattern of success andfailures, improvements and challenges, inno-vationsand obstacles. The major challengeshave been translating economic growth intosustainable jobs, improving service delivery,and reducing income, gender and spatial in-equalities.Figure 1 presents poverty levels inAfrica relative to those of other continents.Despite a decline, Africas poverty rates (ex-cludingNorth Africa) remain high. In 1990,an estimated 56.5% of the population livedbelow US$1.25 per day; the estimate for2010 was 48.5%. This is in sharp contrastto East Asia and the Pacific where the fig-urefell 56.2% to 12.5%. Most regions areforecasting to have fewer than 6% of theirpopulations living on less than US$1.25 perday by 2015 (the end of the MDGs); withonly South Asia and Africa projected to havealarmingly high rates of 23.2% and 42.3%,respectively (AfDB, 2013c).According to the International Labour Organi-sation(ILO, 2012: vii), the resource-intensivedevelopment model of the past will lead torising costs, loss of productivity and disrup-tionof economic activity. Projections sug-gestthat under the BAU scenario, productiv-itylevels will have dropped by 2.4% in 2030,and by 7.2% in 2050. The BAU developmentmodel is also considered to be inefficientwith regard to productive employment anddecent work. However, efforts toward envi-ronmentalsustainability and green growthhave witnessed job creation. Globally, sincethe 2008 financial crisis, job growth in therenewable energy sector has averaged 21%annually; at the end of 2010, this sector em-ployedclose to 5 million people (Ibid). Energyefficiency is another key employment sector,with ecosystems services also contributingsubstantially. In the European Union, an esti-mated14.6 million jobs directly and indirectlyprotect biodiversity and restore habitats andforests. Africa tends to gain jobs in forestprotection through Reducing Emission fromDeforestation and Forest Degradation plus(REDD+) projects. Globally, an annual invest-mentof US$30 billion could yield close to8 million jobs under REDD+. The ILO main-tainsthat the potential for job loss due togreen growth has been exaggerated (Ibid); infact, eight key sectors are being transformedthrough green growthagriculture, forestry,fishing, energy, resource-intensive manufac-turing,recycling, building, and transport.Engel and Kammen (2009) maintain that thewind energy sector will create sustainablegreen jobs. Citing Boettcher et al., they sup-portthis contention with data for Germany,Percentage706050403020100Figure 1: Regional poverty rates (% population livingbelow US$1.25/day)Source: Data from AfDB, 2013c: 2Europe and Central AsiaMiddle East and North AfricaAfrica (excluding North Africa) Green growthis viewed as amechanism thatmay address per-ennialintergener-ationalpoverty. 17. GREEN GROWTH AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION: RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFRICA7Spain and Denmark. In Germany, 22.3 giga-watts(GW) of installed wind energy wouldcreate 80,000 jobs in the value chain. ForSpain, 14.7 GW of installed capacity ofwind energy would create 31,500 jobs; andfor Denmark, 3.1 GW of installed capacityof wind energy would create up to 21,600jobs. These figures are important for Africasgreen growth mainstreaming efforts, as theyindicate the potential that lies in the windenergy sector.In a recent report on direct employment inSouth Africa (IDC, DBSA and TIPS, 2011),the Industrial Development Corporation, theDevelopment Bank of Southern Africa, andthe Trade and Industrial Policy Strategies es-timatedthe short-term (2011 to 2012), medi-um-term (2013 to 2017) and long-term (2018to 2025) potential for green jobs in the formaleconomy in four sectors: energy generation,energy and resource efficiency, emissionsand pollution mitigation, and natural resourcemanagement. An estimated 98,000 new jobswould be created in the short term; 255,000in the medium term; and 462,000 in the longterm.MAINSTREAMING GREEN GROWTHINTO DEVELOPMENT PLANSIf the continent is to tackle poverty throughgreen growth, it must be mainstreamed intodevelopment policy documents such as theAfrican Union Agenda 2063, Regional Eco-nomicCommunity (REC) visions, nationalvisions, poverty reduction strategies, andnational development plans. Policies devel-opedbefore the 2008 financial crisis containvirtually no green growth elements; but somepolicies formulated since then incorporateelements of green growth.The AfDB and OECD (2013) identified a num-berof enabling tools for mainstreaming greengrowth national and international policy ar-chitecture,overseas development assistance(ODA), technology transfer, research and de-velopment,financing, and skills training thatwould result in employment in green jobs.Sustainable infrastructure, efficient naturalresource management, and improved resil-iencebuilding were identified as quick-winareas that is, they offer opportunities forinitiatives that are relatively cheap and easyand that can be quickly implemented. Com-monthemes for green growth mainstreaminginto national development planning included:use of inter-ministerial mechanisms, SEA andenvironmental impact assessment, demon-strationprojects to raise awareness, policysequencing and institutional mechanisms,education at primary level about the impor-tanceof conserving natural capital, capacitydevelopment across ministries and organiza-tions,and enhanced data collection (espe-ciallyon natural capital).Although not explicitly addressing greengrowth, a 2013 background document tothe African Union Agenda 2063 calls forinclusive growth and sustainable develop-ment(African Union, 2013) in the context ofpoverty that is still rampant on the conti-nent(ibid.: 19). Ugandas Vision 2040 ex-pressesthe desire for green growth and aclean environment in which ecosystems aremanaged sustainably. The Rwanda 2013-2018 Economic Development and PovertyReduction Strategy clearly mainstreamsgreen growthone of the five priority are-asis a green growth approach to econom-ictransformation (Rwanda Government,2013). The government views environmen-talmainstreaming as a base for promotinggreen growth and investment that may leadto poverty eradication in Rwanda. A greengrowth approach is predicted to result inthe development of sustainable cities andvillages and promote innovation in industryand the private sector.Rwanda has pioneered climate-resilientgreen growth (Climate and Knowledge De-velopmentNetwork CDKN, 2013). Thecountrys Green Growth and Climate ResilientStrategy resulted in the establishment of theRwanda Fund for Environment and ClimateChange (FONERWA), which received 22.5million from the British International Climate 18. GREEN GROWTH AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION: RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFRICA8Fund in June, 2013. This made FONERWAthe largest demand-based green climatefund in Africa. FONERWA finances projectsin four areas: conservation and sustainablenatural resource management; research anddevelopment, technology transfer and imple-mentation;environment and climate changemainstreaming; and environmental impactassessments. As well, 20% of the fund isreserved for the private sector, and 10%, forlocal districts. The main challenge is limitedcapacity in evaluating bids and in projectmanagement, with which CDKN will assistuntil 2015. The Green Growth and ClimateResilient Strategy identified 14 Programs ofAction and six quick-wins, among which aregeothermal energy reserves, soil manage-ment,and climate-resilient roads infrastruc-tureand networks.South Africa is on the forefront of greengrowth transition. In 2011, the country es-tablishedthe Green Fund amounting toabout US$800,000 (Nhamo, 2013). Otherfunding mechanisms include a US$2.5 billonloan facility from the Industrial DevelopmentCorporation. However, South Africas mostcommonly cited green growth initiativespertain to energy the Industrial PolicyAction Plan calls for one million solar waterheaters to be installed in residential areas byDecember 2014. In its economy modelling,South Africa focused four on sectors: naturalresources management, agriculture, trans-port,and energy (UNEP, 2013b). A group ofexperts identified these sectors as havingthe potential for rapid and sizeable payoffs,particularly in terms of employment and re-latedspin-offs.Renewable energy notably wind and ge-othermalis proving to be a growth area inKenya (Ellis et al., 2013) and Ethiopia (Fed-eralDemocratic Republic of Ethiopia, 2012).A geothermal fund from the German Devel-opmentBank (KfW), launched in 2012, pro-vides20 million to 50 million for feasibilitystudies and exploration for projects in Ken-ya,Uganda, Tanzania, Rwanda and Ethiopia.Ethiopias Climate Resilient Green EconomyStrategy (CRGES) is directed toward sus-tainabledevelopment (Federal DemocraticRepublic of Ethiopia, 2012), targeting hydro-powerand geothermal energy. In October2013, Ethiopia inaugurated the continentslargest geothermal farm, which had attract-edUS$4 billion from the American-Icelan-diccompany Reykjavik Geothermal (GlobalPost, 2013). The farm will generate 1,000megawatts (MW) and is predicted to be thesingle largest foreign direct investment inthe country. After its completion in 2017, the6,000-MW Grand Renaissance Dam on theNile, which was developed in line with thegovernment green growth transition policy,will be Africas largest artificial dam (Ibid).The US$179-million Ashegida Wind Farm inTigray State, commissioned in October 2013(Smith, 2013), has a capacity of 120MW andreceived funding from France. However, 700farmers lost part or all their land, and al-thoughthey were financially compensated,it was not sufficient.Mozambique regards green growth as ameans to achieve inter-generational equi-ty(Rio Pavilion, 2012). During the Rio+20Summit, President Armando Emilio Guebu-za,in launching the green growth roadm-ap,noted that green growth transition thattakes into account the countrys rich naturalcapital will help Mozambique have an inclu-sivemiddle-income by 2030. The program isfinanced by the African Development Bankwith technical support from the WorldwideFund for Nature. The green growth modelis expected to promote sustainable greenjobs while conserving the environment. Threeinterrelated focal areas were identified forsuccessful green growth transition: sustain-ableinfrastructure; sustainable and efficientuse of natural capital; and the resilience andadaptive capacity of livelihood. Table 2 sum-marizessteps taken by selected countries ingreen growth transition.With technical assistance from the AfDB(AfDB, 2013a), Sierra Leone has planned itsgreen growth transition. From 2013 to 2017,green growth mainstreaming will occur under 19. GREEN GROWTH AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION: RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFRICA9Table 2: Green growth engagement processes from selected countriesCountry Selected green growth engagement landmarksSierra Leone 2012: AfDB Technical Assistance for green growth transitionthe Agenda for Prosperity (A4P2), which iden-tifieseight priority areas: economic diver-sification,natural resource management,accelerating the MDGs for human develop-ment,international competitiveness, employ-mentand labour strategy, social protection,1 Natural capital, tenure, consultation, agriculture,fisheries, forests, water, energy, cities, greentechnology, climate resilience, human capital,extractives, economic resilience and equity, andcatalytic funds (cross-cutting).2 A4P is the popular term for Sierra Leones PovertyReduction Strategy. 2013: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP 3) (2013-17), commonly known as theAgenda for Prosperity (A4P), which is consistent with a green growth approach 2013: Publication on Green Growth Sierra Leone: Transitioning towards green growth Stocktaking and the way forward 2013: Green growth mainstreaming agenda defined to 2017 under the A4PSouth Africa 2007: Long-Term Mitigation Scenario 2009: US$7.5 billion stimulus package launched (11% allocated to environment-relatedareas such as railways, energy-efficient buildings, water, and wastemanagement) 2010: National Green Economy Summit 2010: Industrial Action Plan 2 (IPAP 2) proposed installation of one million solar waterheaters across the country 2011: Hosted UNFCCC COP17 in Durban 2011: Green Economy Accord (300,000 new green jobs by 2020) 2012: New Growth Path 2012: National Development Plan-Vision 2030 (Chapter 5 dedicated to Low-CarbonDevelopment) 2013: Proposed carbon tax by 2015 2013: South Africa Green Economy Model (SAGEM) prioritizing natural resourcemanagement, agriculture, transport and energy sectors 2014: Ongoing work on Long-Term Adaptation Strategy 2014: Ongoing work on policy and strategy framework for green economy in contextof sustainable developmentMozambique 2011: Roadmap for a Green Economy GER (with development partners includingAfDB) 2012: Inter-ministerial Steering Group established under GER and comprising MICOA,MPD, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation and CONDES2012: Technical training of members of Steering Group 2012: Regional Consultations of GER 2012: Launch of Roadmap for a Green Economy during Rio+20 Summit 2013: Green Economy Action Plan (three pillars identified 15 subsectors1) 2014: Work toward full integration of Green Economy Action Plan into Five-YearNational Development Plan (2015-2019)Source: Authorgovernance and public sector reform, andgender. The government sees opportunitiesarising through sustainable management ofboth renewable and non-renewable naturalcapital. Green growth is an opportunity togain international recognition and a moreefficient and competitive economic basethat will create sustainable jobs and attractdevelopment finance, even from the privatesector. The enabling conditions for the imple-mentationof the A4P, as well as for the greengrowth agenda, are political leadership, ad-equatepolicies and incentives, governanceand capacity, national budget, information 20. GREEN GROWTH AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION: RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFRICA10and analytical tools, a role for the privatesector, development partner support, andcommunications. These constitute a basis forcreation of monitoring and evaluation tools,such as a national Green Growth Index (GGI).GREEN GROWTH AND POVERTYREDUCTION: RISKS ANDOPPORTUNITIESGreen growth poses potential risks to trade(UNCSD, 2011). The African Union empha-sizesthat green growth should not be usedas a trade barrier or to impose conditionson developing countries; neither should it beused by developed countries as a pretext fornot fulfilling their pledges and commitmentsto developing countries (Keane, 2011: 6). Ina report in preparation for the Rio+20 Sum-mit,the African Ministerial Conference onthe Environment (AMCEN) was frank abouttrade barriers associated with green growth trade ... should not unduly distort marketsand competition. Specifically, environmentalconcerns should not be used as a pretext fortrade protection (AMCEN, 2011: 7). Howev-er,the global transition to green growth hascreated non-tariff barriers that the continentcannot avoid, such as the need to reduce thecarbon footprint of products and services. Forinstance, the South African fruit industry mustnow export wine in bulk as identified earlier.Nhamos (2013: 128) conceptual frameworkfor assessing green growth readiness is use-fulwhen debating risks associated with greengrowth transition in Africa. The frameworkidentifies six interlinked readiness conditions:high-level political commitment and champi-oning;institutional set-up and capacity de-velopment;finance; green growth policy in-cubation(including legislation development);research and development, technology andinnovation, and intellectual property rights;and programs and projects (design, imple-mentation,monitoring and evaluation).Green growth readiness may be lower-orderor higher-order (Nhamo, 2013). Lower-orderreadiness pertains to the presence of func-tionalgeneral environmental and governancelegislative frameworks. Specifically, a countryshould have functional policies on environ-ment,water, forestry, disaster risk reduction,poverty reduction, sustainable development,and waste management. As well, environ-mentalrights should be embedded in con-stitutionsand/or major environment-relat-edpolicies. At higher-order levels of greengrowth readiness, countries have formulat-edpolicies that address issues such as lowcarbon development, climate change, andpure green growth. UNECA (2012b: 11) hasnoted the limited first-order readiness in WestAfrica: ... a review of domestic sustainabledevelopment reveals that up to now, mostWest African countries have yet to devisetheir National Strategy for Sustainable Devel-opment.Further, UNECA observes that poorgovernance, political instability and conflicthave led to the displacement of people andthe destruction of socio-economic ties andresources needed for green growth transition.Lack of coordination between Regional Eco-nomicCommunities (RECs) and their mem-berstates is yet another challenge for greengrowth; in most cases, countries act aheadof their RECs (UNECA, 2012b).The OECD (2013) identifies five challengesassociated with green growth transition indeveloping countries, particularly, those inAfrica (Box 1).Although the renewable energy sector of-ferslarge and relatively quick returns fromgreen growth, developing wind farms, solarparks, geothermal farms and hydro plantsdisplaces the local population. The resultscan be devastating, with some individualslivelihoods completely destroyed. Govern-ment-forced relocation and compensationare always contested people either donot wish to be relocated, or compensationis insufficient. For instance, The Guardian(2013) reported that communities displacedby 1950s and 1960s mega hydropower pro-jectssuch as Kariba, Akosombo and Ingadams are still fighting for compensation andeconomic rehabilitation today. 21. GREEN GROWTH AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION: RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFRICA11Box 1Special challenges for green growth in developing countries:1. A large informal economy that accounts for up to 75% of nonagricultural jobs in Sub-Saharan Africa.This complicates implementation of the economic, fiscal and regulatory policy instruments needed forgreen growth.2. High levels of poverty and inequality. Targeted policies to avoid negative effects on the poorest arerequired, but capacities for designing and financing such policies are limited.3. Weak capacity and resources (public and private) for innovation and investment limit developingcountries ability to find and exploit opportunities that emerge from a green growth agenda.4. An urgent need for rapid development, economic growth and welfare improvement. In lower-incomecountries, where natural assets are frequently abundant, the welfare benefits from transitioning to greengrowth are not as evident as those from conventional economic development, particularly in the shortterm.5. Few mechanisms to ensure that those who protect natural assets (such as forest land for carbonsequestration) receive large enough financial incentives to maintain them. Without strong incentives, thepolitical viability of green growth will be weakened.Reducing Emissions from Deforestation andForest Degradation Plus (REDD+) is one ofthe green growth mechanisms in Africa. FERN(2013) recognizes more advances in REDD+implementation in the DRC than in any otherCongo Basin nation, but it also raises con-cerns.Projects are propelled forward withlimited readiness, especially at the grassrootslevel. Many donors fail to acknowledge prob-lemsand portray the REDD+ in the DRC as ahuge success. FERN observed that the mid-termreview of the 2010 DRCs ReadinessPreparation Proposal (R-PP) found manygaps and weaknesses, yet the World Bankand partners pushed the country to the invest-mentand implementation phase. Among thekey concerns was the lack of inclusivenessin the consultations. Fairhead et al. (2012)examined the problem of land grabbing ingreen growth transition. Karumbidza andMenne (2010) reported that massive tracksof land were being taken up in the DRC forREDD+ and biofuels farming purposes. Othercountries on the radar of foreign investorsinclude Tanzania, Madagascar, and Zambia.The carbon market is another area that in-volvesgreen growth. The market, createdthrough the three mechanisms in the 1997Kyoto Protocol, has been turbulent since theglobal financial crisis. A tonne of CO2 sold atUS$50.17 in 2008, but by December 2013had fallen to less than US$1 (Business Daily,2013). The drop in carbon prices and disputesabout the single global climate change treatypresent a risk to using the carbon market toaid green growth transition in Africa. Giventhat a considerable amount of land is cur-rentlyreserved for REDD+ projects, the fateof such land is uncertain if its use value con-tinuesto fall in line with the carbon market.Kastrinos (1995) argued that environmentalregulation under green growth brings moreopportunities than risks. Based on 1992 fig-ures,he predicted a jump in the global en-vironmentalmarket from US$210 billion toUS$570 billion in 2010. This growth was es-timatedfor the air pollution control and mon-itoringand waste management and waste-watertreatment sectors. The AfDB (2012)advises that Africa move beyond hardwarefinancing on technology transfer and start toevaluate needs and appropriate and cost-ef-fectivetechnologies.Green growth transition can give urgencyto finalizing older renewable energy plans.For instance, completion of the SouthernAfrican Power Pool depends on installationof infrastructure along the Inga River in theDRC. The Batoka Gorge hydropower on theSource: OECD (2013: 8) 22. GREEN GROWTH AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION: RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFRICA12Zambezi River between Zambia and Zimba-bweis another example. In addition, the highcarbon footprint of African products that areprocessed mainly from coal-fired electrici-tyand diesel-powered generators could bemitigated by greening national electricitygrids toward renewable energy (wind, hydro,geothermal and solar).In a study of green growth opportunities andrequirements in Egypt, Ellis (2012: 4) identi-fiedthree broad sectors: renewable energygeneration and applications, the constructionindustry, and the agricultural waste sector.She describes green growth opportunitiesas those that achievethe triple goals of (i) economic growth, (ii)social inclusivity, and (iii) environmentalsustainability. The social dimension isaddressed by prioritizing these oppor-tunitiesin terms of their potential to gen-eratejobs, thus allowing the benefits ofthese new opportunities to be shared ina socially inclusive manner.For the renewable energy generation and ap-plicationssector, the potential for wind andsolar power was discussed; for solar specif-ically,photovoltaic, solar water heating, andconcentrated solar power.The UNEP (2013c) addresses the issues ofgreen growth and trade. The organizationregards greening trade not only as an op-portunity,but an imperative.If we are to reverse the global declineof biodiversity, mitigate the release ofgreenhouse gases, halt the degradationof lands, and protect our oceans, theninternational trade must become sustain-ableand responsible. Further, if we areto succeed in eradicating poverty, we willneed to ensure that trade benefits thepoor (UNEP, c v).The UNEP document on green economy andtrade identifies agriculture, fisheries, manu-facturing,renewable energy and tourism asrelevant to the African green growth tran-sition.To enhance trade in environmentalgoods and services, the UNEP specifies arange of enabling conditions: investment andspending, market-based instruments, nation-alregulatory frameworks, and internationalframeworks, all supported by dialogue andcapacity development (ibid.).POLICY RECOMMENDATIONSNeed to enhance green growth readiness:Only a few African countries are relativelyprepared to undertake the green growth tran-sitionagenda, based on the framework spec-ifyingsix green growth readiness parameters:high-level political commitment and cham-pioning;institutional capacity development;finance; green growth policy incubation andreform; research and development, technol-ogyand innovation, and intellectual proper-tyrights; and programs and projects. Sub-stantialcommitment and financial resourcesare needed at both the continent-wide andnational levels to prepare governments forgreen growth transition.Mainstreaming green growth in develop-mentpolicies: The continent must main-streamgreen growth into development pol-iciessuch as African Union Agenda 2063(currently under preparation), Regional Eco-nomicCommissions visions, poverty reduc-tionstrategies, national visions, and nationaldevelopment plans. If the continent is to re-mainon a sustainable growth and develop-mentpath, there is no alternative.Prioritizing agriculture: Given the predom-inanceof agriculture in African economies,green growth must make it a priority. Newagro-ecological maps must be developed toinform policy and green growth.Avoiding green growth as a non-tariff bar-rier:Although green growth is a welcome initi-ative,Africa must work on competitiveness is-sues.If green growth brings non-tariff barriersassociated with carbon border adjustments,the continent might find it unpalatable. 23. GREEN GROWTH AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION: RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFRICA13Dealing with increasing natural disasters:The need to address climate change is atthe heart of green growth in Africa. Lobby-ingshould continue to convince top globalemitters and developed economies to reducetheir emissions to achieve a range within 2Cof pre-industrial levels and to honor the annu-alUS$100-billion Green Climate Fund pledg-es.As well, the loss and damage mechanismunder the UNFCCC adaptation work programmust be refined so that affected countries areadequately compensated.Financing: All available financing for greengrowth should be mobilized, especially domes-ticsources. Models like Rwandas FONERWA,South Africas Green Fund, and Ethiopian re-newableenergy FDI determinants are viablestarting points. With green growth funds beingsought worldwide, to be competitive, Africamust have workable mechanisms in place. Thisdoes not, however, obviate the need for duediligence in underwriting contracts.Avoiding one-size-fits-all approach: Differ-entcountries are at different stages of greengrowth transition, and their policies and pathsdiffer in terms of detail. This is as it should be,because a one-size-fits-all approach will notwork. African countries have diverse resourceendowments and each country must prioritizequick-win sectors. At the national level, coun-triesmust tailor the global green growth agen-dato their unique domestic situation. Smallisland nations, for example, have identifiedsmall-scale fisheries and aquaculture, tourism,water, energy and waste as impact sectors forgreen growth transition.Better institutional coordination: The na-tureof green growth requires the involvementof every line ministry. However, fights forgreen growth portfolio control, in order toaccess resources, are common in Africancountries. Each country must identify whatform of green growth co-ordination is bestin its particular case. A model that devolvesresponsibility to every line ministry seems towork, although the question of resources hasto be addressed at another level.Green Growth Index (GGI): An indicator isneeded to measure, report and verify greengrowth progress. To this end, an Africa-wideGGI is proposed. Details will be consideredonce the concept is approved by relevantstakeholders.Enhancing trade in green goods and ser-vices:The market for environmental goodsand services is growing, driven mainly by anew generation of consumers, particularlyin Europe and other developed regions. Thisgives Africa yet another reason to undertakegreen growth. Because the risks of carbonemissions are increasing, and with the singleclimate treaty in sight for 2020, African gov-ernmentsshould work to incorporate morerenewable energy in their national electricitygrids. This will lower the emissions factors,which are a key parameter in the calculationof products carbon footprints.Dealing with green/clean technologydumping potential through procurement:Given the low levels of research and develop-mentin Africa, most green technology will beimported. There is a chance that developed re-gionswill dump entry-level green/clean tech-nologiesin Africa, offered at favorable pricesand as part of aid and trade packages. Asa result, Africa would benefit only minimallyfrom green growth transition, particularly inlowering the carbon footprint of products.CONCLUSIONBecause green growth is a relatively newconcept, controversy remains about whatit really means. However, the literature pub-lishedsince 2008 has helped clarify someconcepts, so understanding of the majorbuilding blocks of green growth is relativelygood. Africa has some of the worlds poorestcountries, so any (green) growth opportunityis welcome, provided it is inclusive and incor-poratesequity elements. 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Address by His Excellency,President JG Zuma on the occasionof National Womens Day celebrationsmarking 100 years of womens strugglesThulamahashe Stadium, Bushbuckridge,Limpopo. 26. 16 27. CROISSANCE VERTE ET ALLGEMENT DE LA PAUVRET : RISQUES ET OPPORTUNITS POUR LAFRIQUE17Croissance verte et allgement dela pauvret : risques et opportunitspour lAfriqueRSUMLes gouvernements africains sont dtermi-ns rduire au minimum les risques lis la croissance verte et doptimiser les oppor-tunitsoffertes par ce modle de croissance.La croissance verte est une rupture avec lemodle de croissance forte intensit de res-sourcesqui a longtemps prvalu par le pass,et qui a entran la diminution des ressourcesen gnral et des resssources naturelles enparticulier. Les principaux risques examinsdans le prsent document sont : les faiblesniveaux de prparation la croissance verte ;lventualit dun dumping des technologiespropres lmentaires ; et les changes assor-tisde conditions dans le cadre de la crois-sanceverte. Au nombre des opportunitsfigurent lexcution de mgaprojets portantsur les nergies renouvelables anciennes et lapossibilit de mettre sur pied des infrastruc-tureset des tablissements lpreuve duclimat. Le document examine galement desinitiatives stratgiques telles que les para-mtresde ltat de prparation ; lintgrationde la croissance verte ; le fait dviter uneapproche unique ; laffectation de la priorit des projets denvergure impact rapide ;une meilleure coordination institutionnelle ;et la mise au point dun indice de croissanceverte (ICV) aux fins de suivi et dvaluation.Mots cls : croissance verte, rduction dela pauvret, Afrique, risques, opportunitsINTRODUCTIONLa croissance verte nest pas un phnomnenouveau (Savaresi, 2012). Cependant, la crisefinancire de 2008 a suscit un engouementrenouvel pour cette thmatique, les diri-geantsmondiaux ayant dcid de relever desdfis environnementaux de longue date telsque lalimentation et lnergie, paralllement la recherche de solutions permettant de sur-monterla rcession. LAfrique a t dsignecomme la nouvelle frontire de la croissancemondiale (Accenture, 2010), mais il faut fairepreuve de prudence et de diligence raison-nablelors de la prise dinitiatives en faveurde la croissance verte, surtout celles qui sontalignes sur des intrts extrieurs. La transi-tionvers la croissance verte sur le continentafricain doit tenir compte de cinq dimensions :les consommateurs, les ressources, le talent,le capital et linnovation (ibid.). La Banqueafricaine de dveloppement BAD (2013a)reconnat que, pour tre viable, le programmede dveloppement doit scarter du scnariodu maintien du statu quo. Autrement dit, ilnexiste pas dalternative la croissance verte.Du point de vue de la Banque, la croissanceverte signifie quil faut prendre des mesuresaujourdhui pour viter de subir des pertes etdencourir des cots dans un futur proche.Les cots futurs peuvent augmenter : i) silon ninvestit pas temps dans lduca-tion; ii) du fait de la dgradation continuedes ressources naturelles ; et iii) si lestablissements urbains stendent deszones vulnrables aux inondations ou lrosion, dotes dinfrastructures qui nesont pas suffisamment rsilientes (BAD,2013a : 32).Les dirigeants africains ont accept descarter du modle de dveloppementclassique. Dans son propos liminaire tenu enLa transitionvers la crois-sanceverte surle continentafricain doit tenircompte de cinqdimensions : lesconsommateurs,les ressources, letalent, le capitalet linnovation. 28. CROISSANCE VERTE ET ALLGEMENT DE LA PAUVRET : RISQUES ET OPPORTUNITS POUR LAFRIQUE182010 loccasion du Sommet sur la crois-sanceverte en Afrique du Sud, le prsidentZuma a dclar : Nous navons gure dautrechoix que de grer nos ressources naturellesde manire durable. [] Nous navons pasdautre choix que de dvelopper une co-nomieverte (Zuma, 2010 : 4 ; traduction).Labandon de lapproche traditionnelle est siimportant que la Stratgie dcennale de laBAD 2013-2022 contient deux objectifs fon-dssur la croissance inclusive et la transitionvers la croissance verte. La croissance verteoffre une occasion de concevoir les infrastruc-tureset de grer les espaces urbains et lecapital naturel dune manire qui ne porte pasatteinte lenvironnement du continent ni sa base conomique (BAD, 2013a). Restersur le sentier de la croissance forte inten-sitde ressources emprunt par dautres r-gionsdu monde pourrait entraner un dficitde biocapacit et une panoplie de problmeslis la dgradation de lenvironnement. Enrevanche, la croissance verte offre lAfriqueune opportunit demprunter des chemins decroissance conomes en ressources, grce lutilisation de technologies prouves offrantun bon rapport cot-efficacit.Si elle prsente des opportunits normes,la croissance verte nest pas dnue de toutrisque pour les conomies africaines.Voicideux exemples : 1) la transition force delexportation du vin en bouteille lexporta-tionde gros barils de vin en Afrique du Sud(Ntombela, 2013) a entran des pertes dem-plois; 2) la saga des kilomtres alimentaires,qui a vu lindustrie horticole de la Commu-nautde lAfrique de lEst (EAC) dverserdes fleurs de la moiti la fin de la dcen-nie2000 (Garside et al., 2008). Cependant,le cot de linaction est lev en Afrique,o les secteurs centrs sur les ressources agriculture, exploitation minire, fort etpche (CEA, 2012a) restent les principauxpourvoyeurs demplois. La croissance vertedevrait maintenir et renforcer le capital na-turelqui constituera une importante sourcedemplois, de revenus et de moyens desubsistance pour lcrasante majorit despopulations africaines (ibid. : 3).CROISSANCE VERTE : DBATS ENCOURS ET COMPRHENSIONBowen et Fankhauser (2011) font remarquerque la croissance verte est devenue unterme la mode et un slogan dans les po-litiqueset les communauts acadmiques.De mme, Schmalensee (2012) relve quedes slogans magnifiques ne se traduisentpas forcment en actions exceptionnelles ni mme en des actes dignes dintrt.En effet, cela ne sexplique pas uniquementpar le fait que la croissance verte na pasde dfinition communment accepte ; plu-tt,des groupes diffrents emploient cetteterminologie pour signifier ou dire implici-tementdes choses diffrentes (ibid. : S2).La croissance verte a t associe la du-rabilitenvironnementale, la croissanceet au dveloppement faible intensit decarbone et lpreuve du climat, ainsi quune nouvelle dynamique en faveur du dve-loppementconomique. Quentend-on doncpar croissance verte ? Le tableau 1 rsumecertaines de ses dfinitions.LOrganisation pour la coopration et le d-veloppementconomiques (OCDE) a t lefer de lance du programme de croissanceverte depuis 2008. Du point de vue de cetteOrganisation, les gouvernements qui placentla croissance verte au coeur du dveloppe-mentpeuvent parvenir un dveloppementconomique durable et la stabilit sociale,sauvegarder lenvironnement et prserverles ressources pour les gnrations futures(OCDE, 2013 : 2). Une telle rconciliation dudveloppement conomique et de la durabi-litenvironnementale vite la dgradation ducapital naturel et le changement climatique,tout en favorisant la scurit sociale, touteschoses essentielles pour lAfrique. La Banquemondiale (2012 : 1) dcrit les modles decroissance actuels comme tant non seule-mentpeu durables, mais aussi foncirementinefficaces.Les dbats autour de la croissance verte sontinvitablement centrs sur la dgradation ducapital naturel et le changement climatique.Le rapport du Programme des Nations Unies La croissanceverte offre uneoccasion deconcevoir lesinfrastructures etde grer les es-pacesurbains etle capital natureldune manirequi ne porte pasatteinte len-vironnementducontinent ni sa base cono-mique. 29. CROISSANCE VERTE ET ALLGEMENT DE LA PAUVRET : RISQUES ET OPPORTUNITS POUR LAFRIQUE19pour lenvironnement (PNUE) prsente desstatistiques sur les cots de ladaptation auchangement climatique : lhorizon 2020,les cots annuels mondiaux de ladaptationpourraient tre compris entre 7 et 15 mil-liardsde dollars. Le PNUE estime que mmelorsque le plafond des missions aura tatteint et que nous serons revenus sur unsentier permettant de contenir le rchauffe-mentsous la barre de 2 C, dici 2050, lescots de ladaptation pourraient se situer au-tourde 35 milliards de dollars par an (PNUE,2013a : v). Concernant lAfrique, le rapportestime que la facture annuelle slvera 50 milliards de dollars par an lhorizon2050 ; la barre des 70 milliards de dollarslan pourrait mme tre franchie si la ten-danceactuelle du rchauffement climatiquese maintient. Selon le rapport, les secteursessentiels tels que lalimentation en eau, lesinfrastructures et lagriculture auront besoindes cots dadaptation les plus levs enAfrique subsaharienne.Les dfinitions de la croissance verte et deslments connexes proposes par la BADsont utilises dans la prsente tude eugard au rle central et la pertinence dela Banque sur le continent africain. La Stra-tgiedcennale de la BAD pour la priode2013-2022 vise promouvoir la croissanceinclusive et de mettre laccent sur la dura-bilit,moyennant une transition progressivevers la croissance verte. Sur la base de laTableau 1 : Dfinitions de la croissance verteAuteur (Anne/page) Dfinition/explications de la croissance verteBanque mondiale(2012: 100)La croissance verte est le fait de transformer nos processus de production etde consommation pour passer dun modle sale et peu durable sur le planenvironnemental un modle durable. Comme toute transition structurelle, unetelle mutation induit ncessairement des cots de transaction que les politiques enmatire de croissance verte doivent sefforcer de rduire au minimum.OCDE (2013: 2) La croissance verte constitue un moyen conomique et dun bon rapport cot-efficacitdorienter des choix de production et de consommation durables.Lorsquelle est conue pour rduire la pauvret et grer des compromis moyenterme, la croissance verte peut aider les pays en dveloppement parvenir unecroissance durable.BAD (2013b: 1-2) La croissance verte protge les moyens de subsistance ; amliore la scurit deleau, la scurit nergtique et la scurit alimentaire ; encourage lutilisationdurable des ressources naturelles ; stimule linnovation, la cration demploiset le dveloppement conomique. La Banque appuiera la croissance verteen recherchant des chemins de croissance qui librent la pression sur lesbiens naturels, tout en assurant une gestion plus rationnelle des risquesenvironnementaux, sociaux et conomiques. Les priorits dans la ralisation dela croissance verte comprennent le renforcement de la capacit dadaptationaux chocs climatiques, la mise en place dinfrastructures viables, la cration deservices cosystmiques et la promotion de lutilisation efficace et durable desressources naturelles (en particulier leau, qui est primordiale la croissance touten constituant la ressource la plus affecte par le changement climatique).Gouvernement dela Sierra LeoneProgramme dactionpour la prosprit(BAD2013a: 14)La croissance verte sentend du dveloppement durable des infrastructures,de lnergie et des villes ; de la gestion rationnelle des ressources naturellesrenouvelables et non renouvelables ; et aussi du renforcement de la capacitdadaptation des citoyens.Gouvernement sud-africain(DEA, 2013:10)La croissance verte est un sentier de dveloppement durable fond sur la gestionde linterdpendance entre la croissance conomique, la protection sociale et lescosystmes naturels.... lhorizon 2020,les cots annuelsmondiaux deladaptation pour-raienttre comprisentre 7 et 15 mil-liardsde dollars.Le PNUE estimeque mme lorsquele plafond desmissions aura tatteint et que nousserons revenus surun sentier permet-tantde contenirle rchauffementsous la barre de2 C, dici 2050, lescots de ladap-tationpourraientse situer autourde 35 milliards dedollars par an. 30. CROISSANCE VERTE ET ALLGEMENT DE LA PAUVRET : RISQUES ET OPPORTUNITS POUR LAFRIQUE20dfinition propose par la Banque, la crois-sanceverte stend au-del de la rductiondes missions de gaz carbonique et doitcomporter des lments susceptibles derduire la pauvret intergnrationnelle etles ingalits en matire de revenus. Au sensde la BAD, la croissance verte implique deraliser, ds prsent, des investissementsintelligents dans la scurit alimentaire,les infrastructures durables, lnergie et lestablissements urbains, des investissementsqui permettent de mieux grer les ressourcesnaturelles (terres, stocks de poisson, eau etforts) et qui renforcent la capacit dadapta-tionaux catastrophes naturelles et au chan-gementclimatique.La BAD reconnat que les piliers de la crois-sanceverte existent dj sur le continentafricain (BAD, 2012 : 155), notamment desplans daction nationaux dadaptation, lagestion durable des terres, la gestion int-gredes ressources en eau et dautres ini-tiativescres pour garantir lefficience danslutilisation des ressources. Par exemple,des tudes environnementales stratgiquespourraient aider valuer limpact du dve-loppementsur le capital naturel mesure quele modle T-21 du PNUE gagne du terrain, caril a dj t utilis avec succs par le Kenyaet lAfrique du Sud. La BAD (ibid.) plaide pourlintgration de la croissance verte dans laplanification du dveloppement. Cela signi-fiequil faut mettre en place les institutionsappropries au bon moment, en veillant cequelles fournissent des incitations appro-pries linvestissement public et priv vert.Les documents de stratgie de rduction dela pauvret (DSRP), les visions nationaleset les plans nationaux de dveloppementconstituent des plateformes dentre essen-tielles lintgration de la croissance verte.Pour acclrer les progrs vers la croissanceverte, la BAD recommande aux pays africainset aux organisations associes de poser desdiagnostics qui appuient des trajectoires dedveloppement efficaces et durables ; deredynamiser les politiques, les mesures inci-tativeset les capacits de mise en applica-tion; dlargir les options de financement ; etdassurer le suivi, la traabilit et ladaptationdes efforts de dveloppement.Le suivi, la traabilit et la volont de sadap-tersont essentiels la mise au point dindicede croissance verte (ICV). Lutilisation du pro-duitintrieur brut (PIB) en tant que mesuredu succs du dveloppement a t remiseen cause (BAD, 2012). cet gard, un ICVdevrait intgrer de nouveaux indicateurs telsque ltat du capital naturel, lefficacit desressources et la capacit dadaptation desmoyens de subsistance et des secteurs auxchocs et autres menaces dordre environ-nemental,social, conomique et politique.PAUVRET ENDMIQUE, EMPLOISET CROISSANCE VERTELa pauvret endmique est un enjeu majeurpour lAfrique, particulirement en raison deson impact sur les femmes (Zuma, 2013). Lesobjectifs du Millnaire pour le dveloppement(OMD) ont t linstrument le plus efficacede lutte contre la pauvret, mais la situationdemeure critique en Afrique subsaharienne(PNUD, 2013a). A titre dexemple, lAfriqueabritait 48 % de la population de 1,2 milliardvivant sous le seuil de pauvret (cest--direavec moins de 1,25 dollar par jour) en 2010.Le ralentissement conomique continu ob-servaprs la crise financire mondiale de2008 a entran des pertes demplois pour unnombre accru de personnes. La croissanceverte est perue comme un mcanisme sus-ceptiblede rsoudre le problme pos parla pauvret intergnrationnelle persistante.Dans une valuation des progrs ralisspar lAfrique vers latteinte des OMD, la BAD(2013c : xiii) a relev un rsultat mitig, mar-qupar des russites et des checs, desamliorations et des dfis, des innovationset des obstacles. Les principaux dfis ontconsist traduire la croissance conomiqueen emplois durables, damliorer la prestationde services et de rduire notamment les in-galitsdans les revenus et entre les sexes. Lafigure 1 prsente les niveaux de pauvret enAfrique, comparativement la situation quiprvaut dans les autres continents. La croissanceverte est peruecomme un mca-nismesusceptiblede rsoudre leproblme pospar la pauvret in-tergnrationnellepersistante. 31. CROISSANCE VERTE ET ALLGEMENT DE LA PAUVRET : RISQUES ET OPPORTUNITS POUR LAFRIQUE21En dpit dun dclin, les taux de pauvret delAfrique ( lexclusion de lAfrique du Nord)restent levs. En 1990, prs de 56,5 % dela population africaine vivaient avec moins de1,25 dollar par jour ; en 2010, ce chiffre tait de48,5 %. Ces donnes contrastent fortementavec celles de lAsie de lEst et du Pacifique,o le taux de pauvret est tomb de 56,2 % 12,5 %. La majorit des rgions prvoientde baisser moins de 6 % le ratio de leurspopulations vivant avec moins de 1,25 dollarpar jour dici 2015 (anne dchance desOMD). Les prvisions indiquent que seuleslAsie du Sud et lAfrique continueront den-registrerdes taux de pauvret trs levs, delordre de 23,2 % et 42,3 %, respectivement(BAD, 2013c).Selon lOrganisation internationale du Travail(OIT, 2012 : vii), le modle forte intensi-tde ressources du pass entranera descots levs, une perte de productivit et laperturbation de lactivit conomique. Lesprojections indiquent quen vertu du mo-dledu maintien du statu quo, les niveauxde productivit auront baiss de 2,4 % en2030 et de 7,2 % en 2050. Le modle dedveloppement dit du maintien du statuquo est galement jug inefficace en ce quiconcerne les emplois productifs et le travaildcent. Cependant, des efforts vers la dura-bilitenvironnementale et la croissance verteont favoris la cration demplois. lchellemondiale, depuis la crise financire de 2008,la cration demplois dans le secteur desnergies renouvelables a t en moyennede 21 % annuellement. En fin danne 2010,ce secteur employait prs de cinq millionsde personnes (ibid.). Lefficacit nergtiqueest un autre secteur cl demploi, grce une contribution notable des services co-systmiques.Dans lUnion europenne, unnombre estimatif de 14,6 millions demploisprotgent directement ou indirectement labiodiversit et restaurent les habitats et lesforts. LAfrique tend crer des emploisdans la protection des forts par le biaisdes projets du Mcanisme pour la rductiondes missions lies au dboisement et ladgradation des forts, et pour lutilisationFigure 1 : Taux de pauvret rgionaux (% de la popula-tionvivant avec moins de 1,25 dollar par jour)Asie de lEst et PaciqueAmrique latine et CarabesAsie du Sud1990 1999 2005 2008 2010 2015Source : Donnes de la BAD, 2013c: 2durable des terres (REDD+). Dans le mondeentier, un investissement de 30 milliards dedollars pourrait gnrer prs de huit millionsdemplois au titre du REDD+. Pour lOIT, lepotentiel de perte demplois du fait de lacroissance verte a t exagr (ibid.). En r-alit,huit secteurs cls sont en train dtretransforms par le biais de la croissance verte agriculture, forts, pche, nergie, produc-tionmanufacturire haute intensit de res-sources,recyclage, btiment et transports.Selon Engel et Kammen (2009), le secteurde lnergie olienne crera des emploisverts durables. Citant Boettcher et al., ilstayent leur assertion par des donnes pourlAllemagne, lEspagne et le Danemark. EnAllemagne, 22,3 gigawatts (GW) dnergieolienne installe pourraient crer 80 000 em-ploisdans la chane de valeur. En Espagne,14,7 GW de capacit installe pourraient crer31 500 emplois, et au Danemark, 3,1 GW decapacit installe dnergie olienne pour-raientgnrer 21 600 emplois. Ces chiffressont importants pour les efforts dintgrationde la croissance verte en Afrique, car ils in-diquentle potentiel que recle le secteur delnergie olienne.Dans un rapport rcent sur les emplois di-rectsen Afrique du Sud (IDC, DBSA et TIPS,Pourcentage706050403020100Europe et Asie centraleMoyen-Orient et Afrique du NordAfrique (sauf Afrique du Nord)East Asia and the PacicLatin America and CaribbeanSouth Asia1990 1999 2005 2008 2010 2015Percentage706050403020100Europe and Central AsiaMiddle East and North AfricaAfrica (excluding North Africa) 32. CROISSANCE VERTE ET ALLGEMENT DE LA PAUVRET : RISQUES ET OPPORTUNITS POUR LAFRIQUE222011), lIndustrial Development Corporation,la Banque de dveloppement de lAfriqueaustrale et les stratgies de politiques com-mercialeet industrielle ont estim le potentiel court terme (2011-2012), moyen terme(2013-2017) et long terme (2018-2025) decration demplois verts dans lconomieformelle dans quatre secteurs : la produc-tiondnergie ; lefficacit nergtique et desressources ; lattnuation des missions etde la pollution ; et la gestion des ressourcesnaturelles. Un nombre estimatif de 98 000emplois nouveaux pourraient tre crs court terme ; 255 000 moyen terme ; et462 000 long terme.INTGRER LA CROISSANCEVERTE DANS LES PLANS DEDVELOPPEMENTSi le continent souhaite sattaquer la pau-vreten sappuyant sur la croissance verte,il est ncessaire dintgrer la croissance co-logiquedans les documents de politique dedveloppement tels que lAgenda 2063 delUnion africaine, les visions des commis-sionsconomiques rgionales (CER), les vi-sionsnationales, les stratgies de rductionde la pauvret, et les plans nationaux de d-veloppement.Les politiques labores avantla crise financire de 2008 ne contiennentpratiquement aucun lment de croissanceverte ; mais certaines politiques laboresdepuis cette priode comportent des aspectsde la croissance verte.La BAD et lOCDE (2013) ont retenu uncertain nombre doutils essentiels pour lin-tgrationde la croissance verte, savoir :larchitecture des politiques nationales etinternationales, laide publique au dvelop-pement(APD), le transfert de technologie, larecherche-dveloppement, le financement,et la formation professionnelle, qui pourraientgnrer des emplois dans les secteurs verts.Des infrastructures durables, une gestion ef-ficacedes ressources naturelles, et le ren-forcementdes capacits de rsilience ontt identifis comme des domaines impactrapide cest--dire des domaines qui offrentdes possibilits de formuler des initiativesrelativement peu coteuses, faciles mettreen oeuvre, et pouvant tre mises en oeuvrerapidement. Les thmes communs relatifs lintgration de la croissance verte dans laplanification du dveloppement national taitles suivants : utilisation des mcanismes in-terministriels; valuation environnementalestratgique (EES) et valuation de limpact surlenvironnement ; projets de dmonstrationvisant accrotre la sensibilisation ; dfinitionde la squence des politiques et mcanismesinstitutionnels, ducation au niveau primairesur limportance de la conservation du ca-pitalnaturel ; renforcement des capacitsdans les ministres et les organisations, etamlioration de la collecte des donnes (enparticulier, celles relatives au capital naturel).Mme si la croissance verte ny est pas abor-deexplicitement, un document de travaillabor en 2013 pour soutenir lAgenda 2063de lUnion africaine lance un appel en faveurdune croissance inclusive et dun dvelop-pementdurable (Union africaine, 2013) face la pauvret qui svit sur le continent (ibid.: 19). Le projet Vision 2040 de lOuganda ex-primele souhait de parvenir une croissanceverte et dtablir un environnement propredans lequel les cosystmes sont grs demanire durable. La stratgie de dvelop-pementconomique et de rduction de lapauvret du Rwanda pour 2013-2018 intgreclairement la croissance verte lune des cinqpriorits tant ladoption dune dmarche decroissance verte en vue de la transforma-tionconomique du pays (gouvernement duRwanda, 2013). Le gouvernement considrelintgration environnementale comme unebase pour promouvoir la croissance verte etlinvestissement, ce qui pourrait conduire lradication de la pauvret au Rwanda. Onestime quune trajectoire de la croissanceverte devrait dboucher sur le dveloppementde villes et de villages durables et promouvoirlinnovation dans lindustrie et le secteur priv.Le Rwanda est un prcurseur de la crois-sanceverte lpreuve du changement clima-tique(Climate and Knowledge Development 33. CROISSANCE VERTE ET ALLGEMENT DE LA PAUVRET : RISQUES ET OPPORTUNITS POUR LAFRIQUE23Network CDKN, 2013). La stratgie pour lacroissance verte et la rsilience aux alas cli-matiquesa abouti la cration du Fonds natio-nalde protection de lenvironnement et de luttecontre le changement climatique (FONERWA),qui a bnfici dune dotation de 22,5 millionsdeuros accorde par le British InternationalClimate Fund en juin 2013. Cet appui financiera fait du FONERWA le plus important fondsvert climatique ax sur la demande en Afrique.Le FONERWA octroie des financements dansquatre domaines, savoir : la conservation etla gestion durable des ressources naturelles ;la recherche et le dveloppement ; le transfertet la mise en oeuvre de technologies ; la priseen compte des questions relatives lenvi-ronnementet le changement climatique ; etles valuations dimpact environnemental.En outre, 20 % des fonds sont destins ausecteur priv, et 10 % aux districts locaux.Le principal problme concerne les capacitslimites en matire dvaluation des offres etde gestion de projets, lacune que le CDKNpermettra de combler jusquen 2015. La Stra-tgiepour la croissance verte et la rsilienceaux alas climatiques a identifi 14 programsdactions et six projets impact rapide, parmilesquels les rserves dnergie gothermique,la gestion des sols, et les infrastructures et lesrseaux routiers lpreuve du changementclimatique.LAfrique du Sud est lavant-garde de latransition vers une croissance verte. En 2011,le pays a cr un Fonds vert dot denviron800 000 dollars EU (Nhamo, 2013). Parmiles autres mcanismes de financement figurenotamment une facilit de prt accorde parlIndustrial Development Corporation, dunmontant de 2,5 milliards de dollars EU. Ce-pendant,les initiatives en faveur de la crois-sanceverte les plus souvent cites ont trait lnergie le plan daction pour une politiqueindustrielle plaide pour linstallation dun mil-lionde chauffe-eau solaires dans les zonesrsidentielles dici dcembre 2014. Dans lamodlisation de son conomie, lAfrique duSud a mis laccent sur quatre secteurs, savoir la gestion des ressources naturelles,lagriculture, les transports et lnergie (PNUE,2013b). Un groupe dexperts a considr cessecteurs comme pouvant gnrer des gainsrapides et importants, en particulier en termesdemplois et de retombes y affrentes.Les nergies renouvelables, en particulier lesnergies olienne et gothermique, saffir-mentcomme un domaine fort potentiel decroissance pour le Kenya (Ellis et al., 2013)et pour lthiopie (Rpublique dmocratiquefdrale dthiopie, 2012). Un fonds gother-miquefinanc par la Banque allemande dedveloppement (KfW), lanc en 2012 (SinclairKnight Merz, 2012), accorde entre 20 millionsdeuros et 50 millions deuros aux tudesde faisabilit et dexploration, dans le cadrede projets mens au Kenya, en Ouganda,en Tanzanie, au Rwanda et en thiopie. LaStratgie pour une conomie cologiquersiliente face au changement climatique(CRGES) est axe sur le dveloppementdurable (Rpublique dmocratique fdraledthiopie, 2012), et cible les nergies hydro-lectriqueet gothermique. En octobre 2013,lthiopie a inaugur le plus grand complexegothermique du continent, qui a mobilisun financement de quatre milliards de dol-larsEU de lentreprise amricano-islandaiseReykjavik Geothermal (Global Post, 2013). Lecomplexe gothermique produira 1 000 m-gawatts(MW) et devrait constituer le plusgrand investissement direct tranger dansle pays. Aprs son achvement en 2017, lebarrage Grand Renaissance sur le Nil, dunecapacit de 6 000 MW, ralis conformment la politique gouvernementale de transitionvers une croissance verte, sera le plus grandbarrage artificiel dAfrique (ibid.). Le parc o-liendAshegoda, dans ltat