für rechtswissenschaften der universität josip juraj ... · 7 zvonimir lauc, ph.d., full...

Časopis za pravne i društveno-humanističke znanostiPravnoga fakulteta Sveučilišta Josipa Jurja Strossmayera u Osijeku

Zeitschrift für Rechts - und Sozialwissenschaften der Fakultätfür Rechtswissenschaften der Universität Josip Juraj Strossmayer in Osijek

Journal des sciences juridiques et sociales de la Faculté de droitJosip Juraj Strossmayer Université à Osijek

Journal of Law and Social Sciences of the Faculty of LawJosip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek

Pravni vjesnik Pravnog fakultetaSveučilišta Josipa Jurja Strossmayera u Osijeku

Izdavač/PublisherPravni fakultet u Osijeku, Stjepana Radića 13, Osijek

Uredništvo/Editorial BoardProf. dr. sc. Igor Bojanić (glavni i odgovorni urednik / Editor in Chief), prof. dr. sc. Ivana Barković Bojanić (izvršna ured-nica /Executive Editor), doc. dr. sc. Predrag Zima (tehnički urednik / Technical Editor), prof. dr. sc. Branko Babac, prof. dr. sc. Zvonimir Lauc, prof. dr. sc. Vladimir Ljubanović, prof. dr. sc. Srećko Jelinić, prof. dr. sc. Nedeljko Bosanac, prof. dr. sc. Vlado Belaj, prof. dr. sc. Vilim Herman, prof. dr. sc. Renata Perić, prof. dr. sc. Nihada Mujić, prof. dr. sc. Mira Lu-lić, doc. dr. sc. Mario Vinković

Međunarodno uredništvo/International Editorial BoardProfessor Fiona C. Beveridge, School of Law, University of Liverpool, Velika BritanijaProf. dr. iur. Rainer Gildeggen, Hochschule für Wirtschaft und Recht, Hochschule Pforzheim, NjemačkaProf. dr. iur. Urban Bacher, Hochschule für Wirtschaft und Recht, Hochschule Pforzheim, NjemačkaProf. dr. sc. Ljubomir Zovko, Pravni fakultet Sveučilišta u Mostaru, Bosna i HercegovinaProf. dr. sc. Kadriye Bakirci, Istanbul Tehnical University, Law Division of Management Faculty, TurskaProf. dr. sc. Izabela Pruchnicka-Grabias, Warsaw School of Economics, PoljskaDoc. dr. sc. Justyna Maliszewska - Nienartowicz, Jean Monnet Center for European Studies, University of Torųn, PoljskaProf. dr. sc. Vid Jakulin, Univerza v Ljubljani, Pravna fakulteta, Slovenija

Lektor za hrvatski jezik/Croatian Language EditorMarija Šerić, prof.Prevoditelj i lektor za njemački jezik/German Language EditorDr. sc. Ljubica KordićPrevoditelj i lektor za engleski jezik/English Language EditorDubravka Papa, prof.

Adresa uredništva/Address of the Editorial BoardPravni fakultet u OsijekuStjepana Radića 13, Osijek, Republika Hrvatskatel: 031/224-500, fax: 031/224-540web: http://vjesnik.pravos.hr

Časopis izlazi u 4 broja godišnje (cijena četverobroja 120,00 kn)Narudžbe slati na adresu uredništva, a novac uplatiti na žiro račun broj 2340009-110063962

Naklada 500 primjeraka

Izdano uz financijsku potporu Ministarstva znanosti, obrazovanja i športa Republike Hrvatske

Tekstovi objavljeni u časopisu referiraju se u: Current Legal Theory, Tilburg, The Netherlands, ProQuest Research Li-brary, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA, Sociological Abstracts, San Diego, California, USA, EBSCO Publishing, Ipswich, Ma-ssachusetts, USA.

TisakMIT, Osijek.

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PRAVNI VJESNIK GOD. 27 BR. 1, 2011.

SADRŽAJ

Zvonimir Lauc KONCEPT HRVATSKE USTAVNE VLADAVINE ............................................................................................................7

Aleksandra Vasilj JAČANJE PRAVNOG POLOŽAJA PUTNIKA – POTREBA USKLAĐIVANJA NACIONALNIH PROPISA S MEĐUNARODNIM KONVENCIJAMA I PROPISIMA EUROPSKE UNIJE ..........................................25

Tunjica Petrašević SUD ZA ZAŠTITU NACIONALNE ČASTI HRVATA I SRBA U HRVATSKOJ ZA OKRUG OSIJEK-VIROVITICA .. 57

Davorin Pichler SKLAPANJE UGOVORA OSOBA LIŠENIH POSLOVNE SPOSOBNOSTI ................................................................ 71

Marinko Đ. Učur MEĐUNARODNA KONVENCIJA O NADZORU I UPRAVLJANJU BRODSKIM BALASTNIM VODAMA I TALOZIMA (IMO, 2004) ................................................................................................................................................87

Dominik Kozary ZLOUPORABA OPOJNIH DROGA ............................................................................................................................101

Bruno Moslavac SOCIJALNI DIJALOG U SVJETLU MJERA GLOBALNOG PAKTA ZA ZAPOŠLJAVANJE ................................... 127

Mate Perišić PRAVNE NELOGIČNOSTI U UTVRĐIVANJU STATUSA POMORSKIH SVJETIONIKA ...................................... 137

Prikazi

Miro Gardaš PRIKAZ MEĐUNARODNOG SKUPA «PRAVNE I POVIJESNE ODREDNICE GRANICA SREDNJE I JUGOISTOČNE EUROPE» ODRŽANOG 21.-22. LISTOPADA 2010. U OSIJEKU ................................................... 151

Marinko Đ. Učur PROF. DR. SC. SVJETLANA ŠOKČEVIć - UREĐIVANJE I NADZOR ZAŠTITE NA RADU, IPROZ D.O.O. ZAGREB, VISOKA ŠKOLA ZA SIGURNOST S PRAVOM JAVNOSTI, ZAGREB, 2010., STR. I-V+286. ................. 155

Daniel Haman LEGOS-OV STUDIJSKI POSJET PRAVNOM FAKULTETU U PEČUHU I KONFERENCIJA NA TEMU „HUNGARIAN AND CROATIAN LEGAL RELATIONS BEFORE AND AFTER HUNGARIAN ACCESION TO THE EU”, PEČUH, 8. - 9. PROSINCA 2010. .......................................................................................................... 157


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CONTENT

Zvonimir Lauc THE CONCEPT OF CROATIAN GOVERNANCE ...........................................................................................................7

Aleksandra Vasilj STRENGTHENING PASSENGERS' LEGAL POSITION – HARMONISATION OF NATIONAL REGULATIONS WITH EU REGULATIONS .................................................................................................................25

Tunjica Petrašević COURT FOR THE PROTECTION OF NATIONAL DIGNITy OF CROATS AND SERBS IN CROATIA IN THE COUNTy OF OSIJEK-VIROVITICA ............................................................................................................... 57

Davorin Pichler CONTRACTING By PERSONS DEPRIVED OF BUSINESS CAPACITy ..................................................................... 71

Marinko Đ. Učur INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT OF SHIPS' BALLAST WATER AND SEDIMENTS (IMO, 2004) ......................................................................................................................87

Dominik Kozary DRUG ABUSE ................................................................................................................................................................101

Bruno Moslavac SOCIAL DIALOGUE IN THE HEART OF MEASURES PROVIDED By GLOBAL JOBS PACT ............................... 127

Mate Perišić LEGAL ILLOGICALITy IN DETERMING THE STATUS OF MARITIME LIGHTHOUSES .................................... 137

Reviews

Miro Gardaš INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE „LEGAL HISTORICAL BORDERS DETERMINANTS OF CENTRAL AND SOUTHEAST EUROPE”, OSIJEK, 21-22 OCTOBER 2010. ........................................................................................ 151

Marinko Đ. Učur SVJETLANA ŠOKČEVIć, PH.D.: REGULATION AND CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL SAFETy, IPROZ D.O.O., ZAGREB, 2010, P. I-V+286. ........................................................................................................................................... 155

Daniel Haman LAW STUDENTS' ASSOCIATION LEGOS: LEGOS VISITED THE CONFERENCE AT THE FACULTy OF LAW IN PECS, HUNGARy «HUNGARIAN AND CROATIAN LEGAL RELATIONS BEFORE AND AFTER HUNGARIAN ACCESSION TO THE EU», PECS, 8-9 DECEMBER, 2010 ......................................................................................... 157

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INHALT

Zvonimir Lauc KONZEPT DER VERFASSUNGSHERRSCHAFT IN KROATIEN ..................................................................................7

Aleksandra Vasilj STäRKUNG DER RECHTSLAGE DER PASSAGIERE – BEDARF AN ANGLEICHUNG DER VORSCHRIFTEN DES EINHEIMISCHEN RECHTS MIT DENNEN DER EU ...........................................................25

Tunjica Petrašević DAS GERICHT ZUM SCHUTZ DER NATIONALEN EHRE DER KROATEN UND SERBEN IN KROATIEN FüR DEN BEZIRK OSIJEK-VIROVITICA .................................................................................................................... 57

Davorin Pichler VERTRAGSABSCHLUSS DER PERSONEN MIT ENTZOGENER GESCHäFTSFäHIGKEIT .................................. 71

Marinko Đ. Učur INTERNATIONALE KONVENTION ZUR AUFSICHT UND VERWALTUNG üBER SCHIFFBALLASTGEWäSSERN UND BODENSäTZEN (IMO, 2004) ........................................................................87

Dominik Kozary MISSBRAUCH VON RAUSCHMITTELN ...................................................................................................................101

Bruno Moslavac SOZIAL DIALOGUE IM LICHTE DES GLOBALEN ARBEITSPAKT ......................................................................... 127

Mate Perišić DAS JURISTISCH UNLOGISCHE IN DER FESTSTELLUNG DER LAGE VON SEELEUCHTTüRMEN .............. 137

Darstellungen

Miro Gardaš DARSTELLUNG DER INTERNATIONALEN WISSENSCHAFTLICHEN KONFERENZ „RECHTLICHE UND HISTORISCHE MERKMALE DER GRENZEN DES MITTEL- UND SüDOSTEUROPAS”, OSIJEK, 21-22. OKTOBER 2010 .................................................................................................................................................. 151

Marinko Đ. Učur DR. SVJETLANA ŠOKČEVIć: REGELUNG UND KONTROLLE DES ARBEITSCHUTZES, IPROZ, D.O.O., ZAGREB, 2010, S.I-V+286. .......................................................................................................................................... 155

Daniel Haman STUDIENBESUCH DER LEGOS-MITGLIEDER DER FAKULTäT FüR RECHTSWISSENSCHAFTEN IN PECS UND DIE KONFERENZ: UNGARISCHE UND KROATISCHE RECHTSBEZIEHUNGEN VOR UND NACH DEM BEITRITT UNGARNS ZUR E.U.», PECS, 8-9. DEZEMBER 2010 .............................................................................. 157

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Zvonimir Lauc, Ph.D., Full Professor Original scientific paperat the Faculty of Law in Osijek UDK 342.4/.5(497.5)

THE CONCEPT OF CROATIAN GOVERNANCE Abstract: We took part in the Jean Monnet project under the title «Teaching Europe-

an Constitutionality» with the research «The Croatian Governmental System» elaborating on constitutional solutions in Croatia, one of the countries of Cen-tral and Eastern Europe, in accordance with common established methodolo-gy of topic and subtopic selection enabling a qualitative comparative approach (Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Macedonia, Poland, Russian Federation, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine). Although there are similarities in constitutional «destinies» of these countries there are a number of differentia specifica.

Key words: constitutional law, constitutional engineering, constitutional order, the Republic of Croatia

Introductory remarks

Not every generation of constitution makers has the privilege to actually create constitution-al documents and thus to contribute to constitutional engineering. After the 1989 fall of the Ber-lin Wall, our generation (particularly in Middle and South Europe) has received this opportunity.

This paper is a part of wider research that has been done within the Jean Monnet Chair proj-ect titled "Teaching European Constitutionality" that was running at the Constitutional Law De-partment of the University of Pécs, Hungary in the academic year 2008-2011. Namely, the con-cept of Croatian governance has been discussed for the purpose of presenting and comparing the government systems of Central and Eastern Europe which have been providing various solu-tions to the problems and issues arising in similar context.1 Part of the paper is dedicated to the changes of the Constitution of the Republic of Croatia. While some procedures have (already) taken place by the time this paper is being published, much work remains to be done particular-ly in the context of Croatian accession to the European Union.2

1 See: Zvonimir Lauc and Stipe Ivanda, Governmental Systems of Central and Eastern European States, Ed. – Nóra Chronowski, Timea Drinóczi, Tamara Takács, Oficyna a Wolters Kluwer business, Warszawa 2011, pp. 117-165.

2 See: The Constitution of the Republic of Croatia, The consolidated version published in the Official Gazette No. 85/2010; trans-lated by Professor Branko Smerdel, PhD & Ana Horvat Vuković, mag.iur.

Zvonimir Lauc: The concept of Croatian governance

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1. Constitutional Law and World's changes

Practical and theoretical aspects of Constitutional Law in the world, and Europe in particu-lar, especially transitional countries, are in a significant correlation with crucial changes. We live in times of significant changes. Some call it the “Information Age” (Alvin Toffler), some the “Digi-tal Age” (Nicholas Negroponte), some the “Global Age” (Kenichi Ohmae), or the “Age of Paradox” (Charles Exibition), while the titles “Knowledge Age” or “Learning organization” (Peter Senge) get used more and more frequently. One could say that we live in a networked society, which re-quires a rethinking and redefining of the history, the present and the future.3

Thus the changes may be reduced to:

(i) the process of globalization; (ii) the processes of differentiation and integration; (iii) the process of transition.4

Globalization is carried out through the market, politics and law, which means that the pro-cess is not only perpetuated on the economic plane, but also in the sphere of the exchange of per-sons and ideas. It is certain that globalization, as well as other phenomena and processes, does not only have a positive impact. It also requires mobilization over the preservation (aufheben) of identity and subjectivity. Throughout its historical journey the law initially followed the transna-tional tradition: imperialism, communism, international commercialism (or the market), while today it is the telecommunications, ecology, market and pop culture. That way the law is getting universalized, and with it, the sources of legal science.

Multiculturalism is a normal condition of the world. Real homogenization is an exception. On the one hand, we are witnessing the search for bigger and bigger integrations (economical and political), where individual parts keep converging. On the other hand, differentiation is a re-ality, with entities disintegrating into components. Differentiation and integration refer primar-ily to their administrative-territorial aspect, with the growing use of the principle of subsidiarity, but also of the other principles such as proportionality, solidarity, equalization and similar. Each integration raises a question of form; namely whether strong subjectivities will remain over the parts entering the unity, or the unity will represent the main entity, with parts becoming more peripheral. The most important question here, one might say, is where the differentiation ends and how to execute the integration?

Final transition is imminent to every society. It is especially accentuated when there is a Co-pernican twist of the regimes (economical, political, social and legal), which is the case with post socialist environments. In this case one should be cautioned about the blunt negation of the past, which leads to another extreme. There is too little of negating the negations. Constant inter-dependence of the “old” and the “new” (this is not a positive/negative indicator) is present, it should be realized as the law of the “negation of the negation” (Hegel), that is as a “replacement of the replacement” (Forester). In other words, a system must have at its disposal encoded differ-

3 In more detail: Z. Lauc: Origins of Legal Science in Europe today, Europa im Blick, Gregor Weber, Sibetes gemeinsames Sympo-sium der Universitäten Augsburg und Osijek, Verlag Ernst Vogel, Müniche, 2006. pp. 107-123.

4 In more detail: Z. Lauc: Temeljni pojmovi lokalne samouprave, Lokalna samouprava, nizozemska i hrvatska iskustva, HILS, Osijek, 2006. pp. 25-35.


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ences between “yes” and “no”, and it is desirable that it is always possible to “negate again” the constant collateral circumstances, to constantly include the negations within itself (Luhmann). Juridical code of the legal and the illegal is a transformation of the moral and the legal into a “yes” and the immoral and the illegal into a “no”. All of the post-socialist countries encounter more or less the same dilemmas, with similar contaminations, and with identical aspirations5. So we are witnesses and participants in the obtaining of normative and real solutions with “child diseases”. Laws were brought under the principle “the will of all”, but not “the general will“ (Rous-seau). In other words, the law (laws) must rest on morality. In that way morality is not above the law, it enters the law, but does not get dissolved in it.

In other words, all those processes, each by itself and in their interdependence, have their own echoes in the social development. And under the social development we understand:

(i) individual development; (ii) organizational development; (iii) economical development; (iv) cultural development.6

We approach the social development in a holistic manner. Individual development means the advancement of emotional, volitive, intellectual, esthetic and physical capacities, added to team-work ability. Organizational development may be reduced to the scientific-technological revolu-tion, to the modern information technology, which requires skillful application. Economic de-velopment is focused on the realization of as much profit as possible, with the least possible ex-penses or damages (cost/benefit). Cultural development refers to the so-called social affairs such as education, health, social care, science, arts and other.

The goal of every democratic community is the realization of as large as possible individual and communal freedom, co-deciding and the achievement of social justice for all. In that regard the goal is to secure equal opportunities for everyone to realize their desires in accord with their abilities, affinity, skill and motives, and to become free creative beings, which will forge their own happiness and the happiness of the people around them, that is of the community at large. Therefore, it is no wonder that the dignity of a person is the origin of constitutional solutions. It includes a person’s abilities to become aware of himself through the power of his spirit and, with-in his own responsibility, to freely and responsibly shape himself and his environment. We define personal freedom as freedom to feel, freedom to think, freedom to speak and write and freedom to act.

5 The biggest contamination which happened on behalf of that regime can bring us under the inaugural effect, which means that everything is being done “from the top” i.e. from the state, political party or the leader… That approach and ambient brings lack of ability to believe in the human being as individual where „collective“ dominates and individual emotions, motivation, intellectual and esthetical capacities are repressed. In another words, one should be loyal, quite, not have aspiration to be different, and so on, be conformist and use that strategy for keeping his position. This is diametrically different from liberal capitalistic theory and praxis. Finally, this is the problem of present time in the countries that could be qualified as a part of transitional corpus, so called post-communist countries.

6 In more detail: B. Babac, Z. Lauc: Regija i regionalizacija u Hrvatskoj, ustavno-pravni i političko-upravni aspekti, Pravni fakultet Osijek, Osijek, 1988. pp. 69-80.


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2. Constitutional engineering

Therefore, we are searching for the “constitution maker’s” visions – what is the goal (the te-leological aspect), but we are also searching for the missions – for the how. Which constitutional engineering7 is offered as the optimal one? Optimum is a measure (Hegel), and that signifies both acumen and aptitude to wholesomely project the social development on the basis of the consti-tutional choice.8

Giovani Sartori finds that the constitution is a plan or the framework of the "free govern-ment". Further on, constitutions are, primarily and above all else, the instruments of reign by which the executive power is being restricted, restrained and subjected to the control of the ex-ecution by the political authority. He especially insists on telos, since today’s “constitution mak-ers pay too little heed, if any, to the very reason for being of constitutions”. Constitutions estab-lish how the norms are created, they do not decide what is to be instated by those norms. Madi-son magnificently compounded the problem in the Federalist: "In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men... you must first enable the government to control itself". Therefore Sartori concludes: “So, constitutions are, first and above all, instruments of govern-ment which limit, restrain and allow for the control of the exercise of political power."9 Thus con-stitutions should also be neutral in terms of their contents. Sartori also mentions the so-called aspirating constitutions (soviet and similar). Further, he states that the constitution makers of 18th and 19th century were very familiar with and comprehensive of telos, and of the final pur-pose, the constitutionalism, so that their constitutions were shaped through the “consequential focus”, that is, how they do, and how will they take effect. Those constitution makers were “nat-ural” engineers. However, under the influence of legal positivism and analytical jurisprudence, in Europe and Latin America in particular there were constitutional jurists whose concerns and training were in the deductive conception of legally general. To them constitution was exactly the well-structured system of instructions, commands and prohibitions.

An evaluation of constitutional engineering must be wholesome, which signifies not only what may be understood as "Das Sollen", but also what belongs to "Das Sein"(Kelsen), that is through the constitutional order. Thus should be analyzed the causes of the deliverance of basic principles and of particular political institutions and of their historical development which, net-worked with the environment, are framed with the constitutional law as a branch of legal science. Precisely in constitutional law we are witnessing and participating in significant coups, which is the result of “legal globalization”. In other words, one must be well acquainted with achievements, theoretical and practical, of the European and the American tradition.

In 1950s a French author Georges Burdeaue indicated that the similarity of contemporary con-stitutions was conditioned by the uniformity of problems that modern states confronted. This particularly relates with the basic issues of the political system in the new democracies, where the choice of parliamentary systems dominates.

7 "Playfulness aside, constitutions are "forms" that structure and discipline the state's decision making processes. Constitutions establish how norms are to be created; they do not, and should not, decide what is to established by the norms." Giovani Sartori: Comparative Constitutional Engineering, An Inquiry into Structures, Incentives and Outcomes, Macmillan, 1994, p. 198.

8 Long ago, in “The Federalist”, Hamilton asked and it has remained current even today: “Are human societies really capable, or not, to establish a good system of ruling founded on reflection and choice, or are they forever condemned to, as far as their political determinations go, depend on accident and force?”

9 Sartori, p. 199.


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So a modern theory of constitutional choice arose on the basis of the American experience. “Constitutional choice can be determined as a process of collective deciding on the highest lev-el, by which citizens in political communities decide on their fundamental political positions, as well as on the system of institutions through which they will administer their joint affairs.”10 Thus we can reduce the goal of constitutional choice to the establishment of democratic authority based on the principle of the rule of law. That means finding the relation between the basic principles, and these are the following: the republican principle, the federal principle and the principle of the separate authorities, separate but shared powers, equal in the horizontal as well as in the ver-tical (territorial) dimension, accompanied with judicial review and the development of local gov-ernment. In other words, the quest was how to reconcile the principle of efficiency and the prin-ciple of democracy, to find the answers to reconciliation of unity and diversity.11

Commonly known disputes and proposals of reforms in mature democracies are reduced to the system of authority, that is, to the choice of the model of authority. In connection to that “Parliamentary versus presidential government”, a book edited in 1922 by Aarend Liphart, offers several conclusions: first, each of the systems of government establishment has its advantages and weaknesses; second, constitution makers are not free to choose the system of government establishment, but are essentially limited by the political culture and traditions of the particular society; third, empirical data indicate the relative advantage of parliamentary regimes.

Contemporary federalist theory deems the federative system to be simultaneously a unique system and the system of systems (Elazar) and non-centralization to be the principle of federal-ism. This is undoubtedly an autopoietic reflection.12 Federalism is also an answer to the ambiva-lence of goals (Martin Diamond), which in our context means the search for optimal solutions in regard to diversity in the community and within the autopoietic13 network. According to Frid-rich’s “functional-political” view, the crucial issue is not which powers (authorities) the smaller communities have decided to delegate onto the bigger communities, but that the smaller com-munities equally and freely participate in the decision making. Further on, a message of "Con-stitutional Government and Democracy" could be that lives of constitutions are not determined by the constitutional document and the structure of government only, but also by their politi-cal parties, lobbies, mass media; education, the military and economic system and by their in-ternational relations. Fridrich considers that world federalism obligatorily ensures national con-stitutionalism.

10 B. Smerdel, foreword (XIV) to Robert Podolnjak, Federalizam i republikanizam - stvaranje američkog Ustava, Zrinski d.d., Zagreb, 2004.; on the theory of constitutional choice see also Vincent Ostrom: Politička teorija složene republike, Informator, Zagreb, 1989, str. 5-49; see also Cass Sunstein: Constitutions and Democracies: an epilogue, and John Elster and Rune Slagstad: Constitutionalism and Democracy, Cammbridge University Press, 1988, pp. 327-355.

11 The criteria for the accomplishment of these goals should be: (i) maximisation of economic efficiency; (ii) maximisation of the domocratic political life; (iii) minimisation of endangering and contamination of human environment. Z. Lauc: Društveni razvoj i ustavne promjene, CITRO, Pravni fakultet Osijek, Osijek, 1988., pp. 50/51.

12 See: Z. Lauc: Autopoietično oblikovanje lokane, regionalne, nacionalne i nadnacionalne zajednice, Unatoč svim granicama... Augsburg and Osijek Univeristies, Osijek, 1998, pp. 128-149.

13 The allopoietic society - everything is defined by outside forces (Capital and/or Government, pyramidal power distribution throughout the economic and social life), the autopoietic organizations - where almost everything is designed form inside (own heart and mind, own company, own country and state). The most important is "Self" with synergy in network.

In more detail: Walter de Gryter: Auopoietic Law: A New Approach to Law and Society, Ed. by Gunther Teubner, Berlin-New york, , 1988; Overview by academician Eugen Pusić (Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u Zagrebu, 39(1), 123-140, 1989); G. Teubner: Law as an Autopietic System Oxford, 1993; Autopoiesis and Relative Autonomy of the Law, Cardozo Law Review 1998; Observer Web Bibliog-raphy, Compiler/Maintainer: Dr. Randall Whitaker: Overview of Autopoietic Theory, htpp//acm.org/sigois/auto/ATReview.html) etc.


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It is also good to bear in mind the doctrine of concurring majorities (John C. Calhoun), which af-firms the principle of “separate yet equal interests” and the simultaneous representation of the “institutional pluralism” of those interests. This approach also includes the request for obtaining the community’s opinion, addressing the interests as equally as numbers. This kind of communi-ty must stress the principles of consensus and compromise as the basic prerequisites for its func-tioning. Therefore, the most important question in this context is – which are the withheld and which are the delegated authorities. Composite communities must rest on justness and equality, where the protection of different interests is particularly stressed.

In this context it is also important to know the USA doctrine of court self-constraint, where the processes of “juridization of politics” and “politization of judiciary appear”. Closely connected to that is the theoretical and practical involvement of constitutional courts which may usefully and successfully influence the political processes in the sense of: (1) protecting the rights of the op-position (parliamentary minority); (2) protecting minority rights; (3) supervising the efficien-cy and quality of laws; (4) protecting the principle of responsibility of the executive powers; (5) strengthening legal conscientiousness of citizens.14

3. On Constitution

For us constitution is a crucial social project, since it is, at one and the same time, the most impor-tant political document, but also the highest legal act.15 In other words, to interpret the constitu-tion lege artis and bona fidae one must analyze who initiated the project, why it came into being (causal aspect), what it expresses as desirable (teleological aspect), how it came into being, and answer other questions like: when, where, with whom, with what, how much and others. The em-phasis is on the nascidendi (becoming) phase. When something is coming into being various inter-ests and needs are confronted, legitimate and legal social groups are drawn together or organize themselves in order to articulate their aspirations, alternatives and arguments for individual so-lutions are offered.16

The content of the constitution is outside of the constitution. Progress must be the principle of the constitution. Constitutional provisions must be the political credo of the citizens. Constitution must en-sure reliability and validity. Reliability means the independent and identical functioning within the space and time and validity means the justness of reaction, understanding of the essence, and that actions take into account the criteria of efficiency and democracy. Reliability ensures the survival and validity ensures the development.

Content-wise, the constitution must be objectively given, but at the same time it must be subjective-ly accepted. As a social project, and of course within the given concrete circumstances, any con-stitution must aspire for the optimum. It is a task of every constitution maker to discover the

14 B. Smerdel, S. Sokol, Ustavno pravo, Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Pravni fakultet, Zagreb, 2006. pp. 200-202.

15 In more detail: Z. Lauc, Ustavne promjene i društveni razvoj, CITRO, Pravni fakultet u Osijeku, Osijek, 1988.

16 It is widely known and in that regard current even today the deliverance of Constitution of USA. On that wrote also A. de Tocqueville: „Let us look at America, not in order to subserviently copy the institutions that it established, but in order to gain a clearer view

of the form of the political community which would be the best for us; let us take a look over there, looking less for examples and more for advice; let us borrow from their principles and not from the details of its laws… principles on which the American consti-tution is founded, a principle of order, balance of authority, true freedom, deep and truthful respect for the law, are indispensably need of every republic and must be common to all, so we can beforehand say that where we stand the republic will soon cease to exist”; quoted from Siedntop, Democracy in Europe, Penguin Books, pp. 12-14.


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causes of events and to direct actions towards them, with the purpose of neutralizing the nega-tive events and/or reducing them to the least possible measure, while at the same time enhanc-ing and further developing the positive ones. In other words, it is more to the essence to enter the core of social occurrences imposed than to merely know the formulation, which is ultimate-ly only a technique that may be more or less successful. Constitution should contain up-to-date em-pirics, but also its theoretical clothing, since it cannot remain a mere registrar and a chronicler of the journey so far, but must also be the sign pro futuro. The causal approach was oriented towards the past and the teleological to the future, therefore they must be considered within the entity.

It is most important to consider whether the particular constitutional document, as well as the entire social system derived from it since, has enhanced or diminished the concrete social de-velopment of the individual, of the family, the company, of the local, regional, state or super state communities.

Constitutional documents must originate in the pluralism and richness of life, but they themselves must represent a single monolith, which derives from the democratic consensus of all the relevant participants of social life. Thus constitutional documents represent at one and the same time a monolith of the achieved and the pluralism of tendencies, but in such a way as to ensure the pluralism of the achieved and the monolith of what is to be. It is a matter of measure – that is the real art – that is the real challenge, for all and particularly for constitutional engineering.

One may say that the above served as the basis for the derivation of the “Rules of Wisdom for Constitution Makers”, not unlike the “Ten Commandments”, which were formulated by Ca-nadian author McWhinney on the basis of the works of the French writer from the Age of Rev-olution, father Sieyes: (1) make the constitution short; (2) do not attempt to resolve the short-term problems; (3) spare the constitution from the party politics; (4) leave the text to jurists; (5) be modest in expectations if society is divided; (6) do not attempt to proscribe the impossible; (7) do not make the constitution exceedingly rigid; (8) what is successful elsewhere will not nec-essarily have the same effect in your country; (9) changing a single institution will affect other; (10) society can accept only the limited amount of changes at once.

4. Croatia and SFR Yugoslavia

Nevertheless, each country is an entity in its own right and so, in order to understand the constitutional solutions described in the title The Croatian Governmental System, it is necessary to point out the relevant particulars about Croatia.

In 1983 Oscar Gruenwald wrote on former SFRy: “What makes contemporary yugoslavia a gi-gantic experimental station of humanity is the fact that within it there is a conflict of East and West, which is in the same time overshadowed by the conflict of North and South. This justifies the statement that yugoslavia is a microcosm of modern world’s problems most difficult to re-solve. Debris of the worlds most different supervises this country of stunning natural beauty and differences.”

Due primarily to its civil arrangement, the Croatian legal system had already belonged to the family of continental law, a subgroup of Middle European laws, before it temporarily left that family, being drawn into the circle of the socialist law. Now it is being reintegrated back into its former family. It still needs to be mentioned that the law of the pre-war yugoslavia, which im-plies Croatia too, had never been contaminated by the soviet legal school, as was the case with


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other socialistic countries. In other words, it means that the law, and primarily civil law, had been leaning on the individualistic and liberal spirit and content. However, modern develop-ment of the state, that is, of the public sector, required amendments to honor public and social interests, which is a characteristic of all the legal systems of today. There is a growing number of justified claims, even in Croatia, that legal science should modernize in a way to open itself to-wards the new legal-philosophical and legal-methodological tendencies. In other words, what is suggested is to overcome the legal-dogmatic approach and the logical-systematic point of view. More and more, the belief in the scientific character of legal dogmatism is being questioned un-der the influence of legal positivism, just like in Europe. The gravity center of legal science shift-ed towards the legal theory which practiced a different legal philosophy, innovated legal meth-odology, legal sociology and the theory of legal language. So, while sociologizing the law, the right of using classical methods sticks out, methods such are: descriptive, dogmatic, logical-deductive, pragmatic-applicative, while sociology itself uses scientific methods. Therefore, we are protago-nists of the usage of the causal-teleological method.

5. Establishment of democratic government in Croatia

The economic, social and political crisis of the beginning of 1980s showed that the "system of self-governing socialism" and "agreed economy" was unsuccessful, since it suffered from the same weaknesses which characterized other socialist regimes. Any attempts to achieve agree-ment within the SFRy on pursuing economic and social reforms towards a market economy and political reform, failed.

To overcome the crisis it was necessary to ensure the staging of free democratic elections. Croatia passed the Elections Act (15 February 1990), including appropriate amendments to the 1974 Constitution, which laid the groundwork for the first multi-party elections. According to the constitutional amendments of July 1990 the term "socialist" was erased from the Consti-tution; the coat of arms and the national flag were changed, the President of the Presidency became the President of the Republic; and the Government was empowered to take steps to achieve the uniform application of laws.

Moreover, intensive activities were underway to adopt a new Constitution.Croatia (and Slovenia) proposed an amicable solution to the crisis, namely the reorganisation

of yugoslavia into a confederation (October 1990), however, the proposal was turned down, pri-marily by Serbia and Montenegro.

On 22 December Croatia passed her own Constitution, the Constitution of the Republic of Croatia.

In accordance with Article 98 of the Constitution the President of the Republic called a refer-endum (25 April 1991) inviting the citizens to answer the following question: "Do you agree that the Republic of Croatia may enter into an alliance of sovereign states with other states as a sov-ereign and independent state which guarantees cultural autonomy and all civil rights to Serbs and members of other national minorities in Croatia, as proposed by Croatia and Slovenia? or "Do you prefer that Croatia remains part of the federal yugoslavia, a unitary and sovereign state, as proposed by Serbia and Montenegro". The referendum took place on 19 May 1991. The turn-out was 84.94% of all the electors, with 93.94% voting for the sovereignity and independence of the Republic of Croatia.


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By way of applying the decision made at the referendum, on 25 June 1991 the Croatian Par-laiment passed:

- Declaration on the Proclamation of the Sovereign and Independent Republic of Croatia - Constitutional Decision on the Sovereignty and Independence of the Republic of Croatia.17

With the mediation of the international community to facilitate negotiations on dissociation among the former republics, the Brijuni Declaration was signed on 8 July 1991 (mediation of the EC Commission), where Croatia agreed to postpone the application of the decisions made on 25 June 1991 for three months. Upon the expiry of the three-month period, on 8 October, the Cro-atian Parliament finally decided to break all national juridical ties between the Republic of Croa-tia and the republics and autonomous regions which had made up the SRFy.18

On 15 January 1992 the Republic of Croatia received international recognition on the basis of the decision of EC Member States, with other countries soon following suit.

A Conference on yugoslavia was established in the Hague in September 1991. One of the re-sults was the establishment of an Arbitration Committee, the so-called Badinter Committee,19 which concluded as follows: (1) the SFRy is disintegrating; (2) the republics must work out any problems of state succession which may result from this process, in accordance with the princi-ples and rights of international law, with particular regard to human rights and rights of nation-al minorities; (3) those republics which so choose may join together to form a new alliance, which would include the democratic institutions of their own choice.

6. Adoption of the Constitution of the Republic of Croatia (and of constitutional revisions)

Croatia is the first candidate country which has emerged from the war in the former yugosla-via and the first of West-Balkan countries which aspire to EU membership.

Being a European and a transitional country, the Republic of Croatia has found itself at the crossroads twice over the past 15 years. First, in 1990, when it delivered its first constitution and then in 2000, when that constitution was revised.20

On July 25 1990 President of the Republic submitted to the Parliament (Sabor) the formal initiative to commence with the creation of the new Constitution of the Republic of Croatia. The Parliament accepted the initiative and the document entitled Basic Methodological starting points for the Design of the Constitution of Republic of Croatia.

The basic methodological starting points were the following:1. The Constitution of Republic of Croatia must follow the positive Croatian national and le-

gal tradition;

17 Official Gazette No 31 of 25 June 1991.

18 Official Gazette No 53 of 8 October 1991.

19 The President of the Committee was Mr. Robert Badinter, the President of the Constitutional Council (France)

20 The Constitution of the Republic of Croatia was adopted on 22 December 1990 (Official Gazette No 56/90). It was first amended by the Constitutional Act on Amendments to the Constitution of 18 December 1997 (OG 135/97). An important revision ensued with the Amendment of the Constitution in 9 November 2000 (OG 113/00). New amendments followed in March 2001 (OG 28/01), and after that a revised text of the Constitution was published (OG 41/01), and a minor corrigendum (OG 55/01); New revison in 2010. was published in The Constitution of the Republic of Croatia, The consolidated version published in the Official Gazette No. 85/2010.


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2. Return to the European and reliance on the North American legal and constitutional tra-dition;

3. Constitution must be adapted to the measure of ordinary persons – citizens and people;4. Constitution must be of permanent value.From this 10 political-legal principles for the design of constitution can be deduced: (1) the

principal origin and goal of the Constitution are man’s – human (civil, political, social and cul-tural) and people’s rights; (2) the highest authority (sovereignty) originates from and belongs to people; (3) legislative power belongs to the Parliament; (4) the Constitution guarantees parlia-mentary democracy and the rule of law (legal state); (5) right of free political, entrepreneurial and social association belongs to all citizens; (6) right of ownership, trading economy and free enterprise; (7) right to form trade unions (workers and employers); (8) Social state – guarantee of social rights; (9) Guarantee of people’s rights and liberties; (10) Ensuring the sovereignty of Croatia in establishing relations with other peoples and states.

There is a particular emphasis on the fact that international agreements and declarations on human and people’s rights establish the minimum and not the maximum of rights guaranteed by the Constitution. Related to this is the fact that the political-legal principles for the design of the Constitution rest on principles of multi party parliamentarism, respect for person’s civil, po-litical, social and cultural rights, rule of law, sovereignty of the Croatian state, and on the eco-nomic and political efficiency of the Republic of Croatia.21

There was a dispute over which system of government to choose for Croatia: the semi-presi-dential or the parliamentary system.

In support of the argument for the semi-presidential system (1990), it was claimed that it would ensure a high level of political democracy as well as its efficiency, and guarantee the sta-bility of the political system as a whole. Also, Croatia already had this tradition in the period be-tween 1848 and 1918 (an example of the French case in 1958 with the characteristics of Orleans parliamentarism). It is not of little significance that this system as a whole impressed Dr. Tudj-man.

Evaluating the 1990 Constitution from the constitutional and legal point of view after a 10 year period, we may conclude that its principles and the large majority of its provisions provid-ed a good foundation for the legal and political system. yet certain weaknesses, that is malfor-mations, were present, primarily in the functioning of the institutions of government authority, which may be summarized as the excessive concentration of authority and power in the hands of the President of Republic. One has to bear in mind the objective facts, namely, the state of war which first posed a threat to the existence, and later to the integrity of Republic of Croatia. This was coupled with simultaneous transition from socialism to the society of the free market econ-omy based on private ownership. At the same time, the President’s strong influence was further evidenced by the fact that President Tudjman was concurrently the president of HDZ (the Cro-atian Democratic Community), the party which alone won the majority in the parliamentary elections in 1990, 1992 and 1995, and that the constitution at the time established incompatibil-ity of presidential duty with any other public or professional activity except the one in the par-ty. In sum, between 1990-1999 the President of the Republic was concurrently the political lead-er of the party with the majority in Parliament and the holder of executive power, to whom the Government was politically responsible. Through a maze of objective but also subjective circum-stances it happened that the semi presidential system turned into a supra presidential.

21 Duška Šarin, Nastanak hrvatskog ustava, Official Gazette, Zagreb, 1997, p. 16.


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After the electoral victory of the opposition in 2000, which was largely due to the political programs that were offered and the abolition of the presidential system through a more consis-tent and clearer elaboration of the division of power, a fundamental revision of the Constitu-tion occurred, on the constitutional-legal expert foundations.22 In a word, a horizontal and ver-tical division of power was to be played, to organizationally enable the mutual checks and bal-ances among the power holders. This is a proven barrier to any concentration and personaliza-tion of power, which was constitutionally accomplished by the alteration and amendment of Ar-ticle 4 of the Constitution.

The basic concept and approach of the working group was that each of the three highest gov-ernment bodies (President of Republic, Prime Minister, President of Parliament)23 is formed sep-arately and that each acts within the frame of its own constitutional domain. However, there must also be mutual cooperation, exchange of opinions, consultations or unanimity with the other bodies in making the majority of the most important decisions. Instruments like co-signa-ture, requesting the opinion or consultations have the purpose of directing, almost forcing, the holders of the most important government functions to reach agreements or, if needed, to find compromises. In other words, the accent was on the technology of the preparation of final deci-sions, on the so-called transparent participation of multiple actors. Effort was made to respec-tively strengthen the positions of all power holders, but within the new, synergistic frame of in-teraction

Thus the changes were directed at establishing the parliamentary Government and at rede-fining the respective authorities of the Parliament, the President of the Republic and the Prime Minister. In other words, the concept of direct elections for the President of Republic was re-tained. The President of the Republic is an important factor of the constitutional system with an emphasis on the right of initiative, his role as the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, the co-creator of foreign policy and suchlike. The Government grew stronger and is responsible only to the Parliament, but it also guides and directs the Parliament. The single chamber parlia-ment became a unicameral parliament, which paved the way for its greater efficiency. The oth-erwise basic principle was that President of Republic, Prime Minister and President of the Par-liament cooperate and co-decide. Various forms of cooperation, co-deciding and mutual certi-fication of the holders of the three fundamental branches of power were offered. The aim was to implement the conception known in the modern political theory as “rationalized parliamen-tarism”, since it was intended to eliminate the weaknesses of the classical parliamentary sys-tem which could possibly lead to the instability of the executive power, and at the same time to prevent the turn of the system towards presidentialism, which is the concept of concentrated and personalized political power. Of course, amendments and revisions were also made in oth-er parts of the constitution.

22 Work group of President Of Republic of Croatia for The Design of Expert Foundation of Proposal for Constitutional Changes (V. Mratović, B. Smerdel, A. Bačić, J. Crnić, N. Filipović, Z. Lauc), Stručne osnove za izradu prijedloga promjene Ustava Republike Hrvatske, Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u Zagreb, Vol. 50, No. 3, Zagreb 2000, pp. 373-475.

23 In this context one should bear in mind that President of Republic acts individually and that Prime Minister also has personal authority, while the President of the Parliament is always in the function of representing and acting for Sabor..


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7. The Constitution today24

The current Constitution comprises nine parts (sections) with a total of 147 Articles. According to the number of Articles, and especially to the number of norms contained therein and the size of the text, this Constitution is among the shorter European constitutions.

Its individual parts carry the following titles: I. Historical Foundations; II. Basic Provisions (Arts. 1-13); III. Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (Arts. 14 - 69); IV. Or-ganisation of government (Arts. 70 - 124); V. The Constitutional Court of the Republic of Croatia (Arts. 125 - 131); VI Local and Regional Self-Government (Arts. 132 - 137); VII. International Rela-tions (Arts. 138-141); VIII. Amending the Constitution (Arts. 142-147).

Here we would like to draw attention to the peculiarity of the “Croatian preamble”, and to the specially defined constitutional values and the definition of the separation of powers.

The text of the Constitution begins with the section numbered I. and entitled Historical Foun-dations. In other words, formally speaking, the Croatian Constitution does not contain what is typically regarded as the preamble25 (the text above the word „Constitution“), but content-wise, the mentioned section does represent the preamble or the introduction to the Constitution. The historical foundations do carry legal weight, and this approach allows for their incorporation into the normative text, which is reflected in the interpretation and understanding of the Con-stitution. The size of this section can be justified by the fact that it was the first time in its histo-ry that the Croatian people has written "its own" constitution26

The Republic of Croatia has established its political credo by numbering the highest values of its constitutional order in Article 3:

“Freedom, equal rights, national equality and equality of genders, love of peace, social jus-tice, respect for human rights, inviolability of ownership, conservation of nature and the envi-ronment, the rule of law, and a democratic multiparty system are the highest values of the consti-tutional order of the Republic of Croatia and the grounds for interpretation of the Constitution.” This is the teleological robe of the Croatian constitution since the legislator primarily, but also the Con-stitutional Court, as well as all others, must gear their activities towards the promotion and pro-tection of the highest values of the constitutional order.

The horizontal and vertical separation of powers27 requires a Copernican twist in rethink-ing and practising this principle, especially in post socialist countries, and Croatia is no excep-

24 This text was finished by 1. January 2008.

25 Analysing the Croatian Constitution, Peter Häberle stated the following in his book "Ustavna država" (Politička kultura, Nakladno-izdavački zavod, Zagreb, 2002, p. 260): "Preambles to constitutions of constitutional countries may become "textual events". As, by now, typical components of any constitution, they intend to and need to „tune in“ their addressees, primarily citi-zens, much is the manner of an overture or a prelude, using an easy-to-understand language, a language which speaks to common man; their aim is to provide a window into the overall constitutional content and to lay out the history of the state, and of its con-stitution as well. The beginning of the Croatian Constitution perfectly meets these three requirements. Even though it does not represent an actual preamble by its external form, being a text like the "fondaments orginels", preceding the actual articles 1-142, this text does fulfil the function of a preamble content-wise, and is even advantageous in keeping aloof from the long-standing debate concerning the normative force of the preamble; from the external point of view it is, after all, an integrative introduction to the constitution as it is!"

26 It is noteworthy that this text was formulated by the first President, Dr. Franjo Tuđman, a historian by vocation.

27 "The purpose of the principle of separation of powers is not to separate these three basic branches of power organisationally and functionally so they could function, as it is often erroneously interpreted, independently of each other. Not only is it impossible to separate them in this way, but the very attempt at doing so would have a disastrous effect on the integrity and efficiency of government. In contrast, the purpose of the separation of powers is to enable, organisationally, the mutual checks and balances among the holders of highest government authority. In addition to the horizontal dimension, which governs the relations among


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tion. Therefore, it was necessary to amend the constitution, in particular by adding a new, sec-ond, paragraph to Article 4 which reads as follows: "The principle of separation of powers in-cludes the forms of mutual cooperation and reciprocal checks and balances provided by the Con-stitution and law".

From this Prof. Smerdel concludes in the discussions concerning the perspectives of consti-tutional changes, which are often opened by changes of the party in power:

1.Democracy is not immune to abuse and corruption.2.Constitutionally established parliamentary system, semi-presidential system as well as the

presidential system did not by themselves present an obstacle to the irresponsibility of authority and corruptive practices but the reasons for those must be sought outside the system.

3.Discovery of abuse and processualization of the persons involved are significantly facilitat-ed by the change of the party in power.

4.Therefore it is essential to institute a system in which the parties will periodically relief each other in power, based on the decision of the voters.

5.Relief of parties in power contributes at the same time to the stabilization of democratic political institutions and to the institutionalization of the democratic policy. Quiet relief also al-ways reopens the possibility of such a development of the political system, but does not in any way guarantee it.28

Individual constitutional solutions should always be assessed against the backdrop of the cir-cumstances prevalent at the time of their coining. Each period of time brings with it some bet-ter and some worse solutions. It is, however, important that the bad ones are identified, possibly remedied, or at least reduced to a minimum. The good ones in turn, viz. the solutions that have qualified as capable of withstanding new challenges (tradition) must be confirmed and further developed. In doing so, one must open up new processes and seek answers to the questions of to-day but also to those of tomorrow. In other words, constitutional engineering must be contem-plated in the context of the causes that had led to individual solutions, but also with an eye on the purposes which were intended to be thus achieved (telos). I am an advocate of both the causal and the teleological interpretation of constitution.

This has engendered the “Rules of Wisdom for Constitution Makers”, not unlike “The Ten Commandments”, which were formulated by Canadian author McWhinney on the basis of the works of the French writer from the Age of Revolution, father Sieyes: (1) make the constitution short; (2) do not attempt to resolve the short-term problems; (3) spare the constitution from the party politics; (4) leave the text to jurists; (5) be modest in expectations if society is divided; (6) do not attempt to proscribe the impossible; (7) do not make the constitution exceedingly rig-id; (8) what is successful elsewhere will not necessarily have the same effect in your country; (9) changing a single institution will affect other; (10) society can accept only the limited amount of changes at once.

Are we to expect constitutional changes in Republic of Croatia, in view of the ongoing negotiations concerning Croatia’s accession to the EU? We list briefly the possible procedures:

holders of the legislative, executive and judicial power, the separation also has a vertical dimension, the relationships between the central authority and the local self-government, based on the constitutionally defined division of powers in accordance with the principle of the constitutionally guaranteed right to local self-government" (B. Smerdel: Novi sustav ustrojstva vlasti, Informator, No 4881, 16.12.2000)

28 B. Smerdel, S. Sokol, pp. 379.


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1. Definition of state sovereignty in the Croatian constitution is conservative and outdat-ed – like summa potestas.29 Today there is no absolute sovereignty, which is based on the exclu-sion of the third parties, but the sovereignty is like including, in processes of negotiations and agreements. This means not alopoietically but autopoietically. In other words, the position for relevant decision making is the one that is optimal both in the functional and territorial sense.

2. It is essential to secure the legitimacy of the right to vote for all citizens in the local elec-tions and in the elections for the European Parliament. Today the right to vote in Croatia is con-nected with citizenship and not citizens.30 It is necessary to ratify the Convention on Participa-tion of Foreigners in Public Life on Local Level.

3. It is desirable to stipulate the grounds for EU membership in the very Constitution. Arti-cle 141 was written for the former EC (1990).31 Attention must also be paid to the stipulations concerning referenda, which require a qualified majority. This may cause difficulties, consider-ing the evidently growing abstinence on the part of citizens to take part in elections and in di-rect decision making.

4. It is essential to completely abandon the institute of the authoritative interpretation of law, since this allows for retroactivity. This is a vestige of the age when the Parliament was the highest body of power, thus nobody was allowed to authoritatively establish “the will of the leg-islator”.

5. Further on, it is necessary to determine the position of European law norms within the na-tional system. The Constitution is clear on this, since it favours the monistic approach.32 In that regard Article 140 should be interpreted. But there are difficulties with the application, especial-ly in courts.

29 Article 2: The sovereignty of the Republic of Croatia is inalienable, indivisible and untransferable. The sovereignty of the Republic of Croatia includes its land area, rivers, lakes, canals, internal maritime waters, territorial sea, and

the air space above these. The Republic of Croatia shall exercise its sovereign rights and jurisdiction in the maritime areas and the seabed and subsoil

thereof of the Adriatic Sea outside the state territory up to the borders with its neighbors in accordance with international law.

30 Article 45: All Croatian citizens of the Republic of Croatia who have reached the age of eighteen years shall have universal and equal suffrage.

This right shall be exercised through direct elections by secret ballot.

31 Article 141: Procedure for the association of the Republic of Croatia into alliances with other states may be instituted by at least one third of

the members of the Croatian Parliament, the President of the Republic, and the Government of the Republic of Croatia. It is prohibited to initiate any procedure for the association of the Republic of Croatia into alliances with other states if such as-

sociation leads or might lead to renewal of a South Slav state community or to any Balkan state form of any kind. The Croatian Parliament shall first decide upon any association of the Republic of Croatia by a two-third majority vote of all the

representatives. Any decision concerning the association of the Republic of Croatia shall be made on a referendum by a majority vote of the total

number of electors in the State. Such a referendum shall be held within 30 days from the date when the Croatian Parliament has rendered the decision. The provisions of this Article concerning association shall also relate to the conditions and procedure for disassociation of the

Republic of Croatia.

32 Article 140: International agreements concluded and ratified in accordance with the Constitution and made public, and which are in force,

shall be part of the internal legal order of the Republic of Croatia and shall be above law in terms of legal effects. Their provisions may be changed or repealed only under conditions and in the way specified in them or in accordance with the general rules of international law.

Article 5 of the Act on Courts and Article 117 of the Constitution – courts administer justice on the basis of the Constitution and law, but also on the basis of international treaties, other regulations passed on the basis of the Constitution, laws and interna-tional treaties. In other words, judges have the mandate to apply European law as well!


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6. Generally this is the question of how to ensure the otherwise very well articulated consti-tutional stipulation on the division of power.33 This particularly refers to the judicial and execu-tive power, but also to the vertical division of power. Necessary disturbances of the balance be-tween the legislative and executive power must be faced. The Parliament must renounce a part of its authority and relinquish it in favour of the Government. We see as the primary reason for the lingering ideas of the “unity of power” (deciding by democratic centralism) the lack of knowl-edge and the lack of courage on the part of the protagonists to assume the risks of their deci-sions. There is no real trust that others have the will, knowledge or capacity, and this refers espe-cially to the application of the principle of subsidiarity at the local level.

Interpretation is a burden of the court, not of the legislator. Parliament completes its mis-sion by delivering the regulation, and the regulation has its path in the application, through the interpretations of courts and experts and the scientific public.

7. The next is to reduce the power of Croatian institutions (for instance state subventions; interference of politics with the economy, customer-oriented relation of companies towards the authorities; transformation of media and other). All of these examples are relics of the mentali-ty triggered by the so-called “inaugural effect”, which means that everything is decided “above”, that is by the state, the party, the leader. In other words, we should promote the "bottom up" methodology.

8. The legal consequence of the SSA is that numerous legal sources of EU, particularly in the area of freedom of movement of goods, market competition and state subventions, immediate-ly become directly applicable. Thus we are not at the very beginning here, but we should analyze the previous, proceed with the positive and eliminate the negative.

9. The Schengen Agreement, after the expansion of the EU to 27 members, among which are Italy and Hungary, should analyze and get adequately involved in circumstances thus revised.

10. It is desirable to define the principle of subsidiarity in the Constitution and in a more qualitative and explicit manner.34 Closely related to that is the redefinition of the local, and es-pecially regional government.

11. The Regulations but also the practice of European courts: the complete corpus of the ac-quis should be translated and made available to all its appliers.

12. The Negotiating Team is equipped (negotiator for Croatia's accession to the Union).13. Of course, it is necessary to continue with the development of civil society.14. It is essential to keep altering and perfecting the whole process of education. This goes es-

pecially for faculties of law. Education and training of judges, administration and others should be permanent.

15. Relevant and regular implementation of projects requires education of administration, experts and beneficiaries. Efficiency of government and judiciary should be increased.

Challenges are many, and we should seek new questions and try to find new answers. It is a task, not for individuals, but for a team.

33 Article 4: In the Republic of Croatia government shall be organized on the principle of separation of powers into the legislative, executive

and judicial branches, but limited by the right to local and regional self-government guaranteed by this Constitution. The principle of separation of powers includes the forms of mutual cooperation and reciprocal checks and balances provided by

the Constitution and law.

34 Article 134 paragraph. 3: "Affairs of local and regional jurisdiction shall be regulated by law. At the allotment of the affairs, prior-ity shall be given to the bodies which are the closest to citizens."


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2. Branko, Smerdel: Novi sustav ustrojstva vlasti, Informator, No 4881, 16.12.2000.3. Branko, Smerdel & Smiljko Sokol, Ustavno pravo, Sveučilište u Zagrebu, Pravni fakultet,

Zagreb, 2006.4. Peter, Häberle: Ustavna država, Politička kultura, Nakladno-izdavački zavod, Zagreb, 2002,5. John Elster & Rune Slagstad: Constitutionalism and Democracy, Cammbridge University

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Teubner, Berlin-New york, 1988.7. Zvonimir, Lauc, Ustavne promjene i društveni razvoj, CITRO, Pravni fakultet u Osijeku,

Osijek, 1988.8. Zvonimir, Lauc: Autopoietično oblikovanje lokane, regionalne, nacionalne i nadnacionalne

zajednice, Unatoč svim granicama... Augsburg i Osijek Sveučilišta, Osijek, 1998.9. Zvonimir, Lauc: Origins of Legal Science in Europe today, Europa im Blick, Gregor Weber,

Sibetes gemeinsames Symposium der Universitäten Augsburg und Osijek, Verlag Ernst Vogel, Müniche, 2006.

10. Zvonimir, Lauc & Stipe, Ivanda, Governmental Systems of Central and Eastern European States, Ed. – Nóra Chronowski, Timea Drinóczi, Tamara Takács, Oficyna a Wolters Kluwer business, Warszawa 2011.

11. Vincent Ostrom: Politička teorija složene republike, Informator, Zagreb, 1989, 12. Robert Podolnjak, Federalizam i republikanizam - stvaranje američkog Ustava, Zrinski

d.d., Zagreb, 2004. 13. Giovani Sartori: Comparative Constitutional Engineering, An Inquiry into Structures,

Incentives and Outcomes, Macmillan, 1994,14. Stručne osnove za izradu prijedloga promjene Ustava Republike Hrvatske (V. Mratović, B.

Smerdel, A. Bačić, J. Crnić, N. Filipović, Z. Lauc), Zbornik Pravnog fakulteta u Zagreb, Vol. 50, No. 3, Zagreb 2000,

15. Duška Šarin, Nastanak hrvatskog ustava, Narodne novine, Zagreb, 1997.16. Alexis de Tocqueville: Democracy in America, Borzoi Books, Alfred A Knopf, New york, 1991.17. G. Teubner: Law as an Autopietic System Oxford, 1993; Autopoiesis and Relative Autonomy

of the Law, Cardozo Law Review 1998.


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Prof. dr. sc. Zvonimir Lauc, redoviti profesor Pravnog fakulteta u Osijeku

KONCEPT HRVATSKE USTAVNE VLADAVINE

Sažetak

U Jean Monnet projektu pod nazivom "Teaching European Constitutionality" (Studiranje europskog konstitucioanlizma) sudjelovali smo s istraživanjem pod nazivom "The Croatian Govermental System" (Koncept hrvatske ustavne vladavine) elaboracijom hrvatskih konstitu-cionalnih rješenja, kao jedne od zemalja središnje i istočne Europe, sukladno utvrđenoj zajed-ničkoj metodologiji odabira tema i podtema, što omogućuje kvalitetan komparativni pristup (Bugarska, Češka, Estonija, Madžarska, Latvia, Litva, Makedonija, Poljska, Rumunjska, Ruska Federacija, Srbija, Slovačka, Slovenija i Ukrajina). Iako ima slićnosti u ustavnim "sudbinama" ovih zemalja, ipak ima i niz differentia specifica.

U ovom radu autor autor istražuje cause i teleologiju hrvatskih ustavnih rješenja u kontek-stu tzv. konstitucionalnog inženjeringa ("promišljanje i izbor", reflection and choice), odnosno traganja za oblikovanjem institucionalnih rješenja koja imaju za cilj uspostavljanje demokrat-ske vladavine utemeljene na načelu vladavine prava. Hrvatski pristup svodi se na (ne)uspješ-no naslanjaje na hrvatsku državno-pravnu tradiciju, ali i na svjetske dosege (teorijske i prak-tične). Ustav je krucijalni društveni projekt, jer istovremeno je najvažniji politički dokument, ali i najviši pravni akt. Na određeni način ovaj rad ukazuje, između ostalog, na autorova teorij-ska promišljanja oko korelacije ustavnih rješenja i cjelovitog društvenog razvoja (individual-ni; organizacijski; gospodarski, kulturalni) u ambijentu aktualnih pojavnosti - globalizacije, di-ferenciranja i integriranja i tranzicije. Ukazuje se na nužnost odabiranja optimalnih rješenja, na način da alopoietično oblikovanje sve više se prevladava autopoietičnim oblikovanjem, radi ostvarivanja gospodarske učinkovitosti, političke demokratičnosti i ekološke osviještenosti.

Ključne riječi: ustavno pravo, ustav, ustavni inženjering, ustavni poredak, Republika Hrvatska


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Prof. Dr. Zvonimir Lauc, ordentlicher Professor an der Fakultät für Rechtswissenschaften in Osijek

KONZEPT DER VERFASSUNGSHERRSCHAFT IN KROATIEN

Zusammenfassung

Wir waren am Jean-Monnet-Projekt «Teaching European Connstitutionality» (Lehren der europäischen Verfassungsmässigkeit) mit einer Forschung unter dem Namen «Croati-an Governmental System» (Kroatisches Regierungssystem) beteiligt, indem wir verfassungs-rechtliche Lösungen Kroatiens als eines der mittel- und osteuropäischen Länder erörtert ha-ben. Die Erörterung wurde in Einklang mit der gemeinsam bestimmten Methodologie der Themenwahl strukturiert, was einen qualitätvollen komparativen Ansatz ermöglichte (zwi-schen Bulgarien, der Tschechischen Republik, Estland, Ungarn, Lettland, Litauen, Mazedoni-en, Polen, Rumänien, der Russischen Föderation, Serbien, Slowakei, Slowenien und Ukraine). Obwohl diese Länder im verfassungsrechtlichen Sinne ähnliche «Schicksale» haben, bestehen zwischen ihnen auch wesentliche diferentiae specificae.

In diesem Beitrag erforscht der Autor Ursachen und die Theleologie kroatischer verfas-sungsrechtlicher Lösungen im Kontext des sog. konstitutionalistischen Ingeneurings (reflec-tion and choice – überlegung und Wahl), bzw. des Forschens nach der Schaffung der instituti-onalistischen Lösungen, deren Ziel es ist, eine solche demokratische Herrschaft herzustellen, die auf der Herrschaft des Rechts beruht. Der kroatische Ansatz kann sowohl auf (un)erfolg-reiche Anlehnung an kroatische staatsrechtliche Tradition als auch auf die (theoretischen und praktischen) Errungenschaften in der Welt zusammengeführt werden. Die Verfassung ist ein wesentliches Vorhaben jeder Gesellschaft, weil sie gleichzeitig das wichtigste politische Doku-ment und den höchsten Rechtsakt darstellt. Dieser Beitrag weist unter anderem auf theoreti-sche überlegungen des Autors über die Korrelation der Verfassungslösungen und der gesell-schaftlichen Entwicklung im Allgemeinen (d.h. individueller, organisatorischer, wirtschaftli-cher, kultureller Entwicklung, usw.) in Umständen der aktuellen Gesellschaftsprozessen – der Globalisierung, der Diferenzierung, der Integrierung und der Transition - hin. Es wird auf die Notwendigkeit hingewiesen, optimale Lösungen zu wählen, und zwar so, dass die alopoieti-sche Gestaltung immer mehr durch die autopoietische Gestaltung ersetzt wird, damit wirt-schaftliche Wirksamkeit, politische Demokratisierung und ökologische Bewusstsein durchge-setzt werden.

Schlüsselwörter: Verfassungsrecht, Verfassungsingeneuring, Verfassungsordnung, Republik Kroatien


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Dr. sc. Aleksandra Vasilj, Pregledni znanstveni raddocentica Pravnog fakulteta u Osijeku UDK 346.9:368.212.4 366.542:656 347.795.4

JAČANJE PRAVNOG POLOŽAJA PUTNIKA – POTREBA USKLAĐIVANJA NACIONALNIH PROPISA S MEĐUNARODNIM KONVENCIJAMA I PROPISIMA EUROPSKE UNIJE Sažetak: Putnik jest najdelikatniji predmet prometovanja. Kao takav putnik je veoma za-

htjevan, redovito očekuje i traži udobnost, sigurnost, redovitost, točnost, uče-stalost, brzinu, a uz sve to i ekonomičnost. Da bi prijevoznici u većoj mjeri za-dovoljili veoma visoke zahtjeve svojih putnika, morali su stalno podizati razinu svojih usluga odnosno svojih ponuda: usavršavati, modernizirati, razvijati prije-vozna sredstva, organizirati promotivne aktivnosti i pakete usluga no i podizati razinu informacijskog sustava.

Putnici danas u prometu uživaju određena prava, očekuju jednak stupanj zašti-te gdje god putovali, a svoja prava lakše ostvaruju ako postoji ujednačenost gle-de nacionalnih i međunarodnih propisa.

U okviru zaštite prava putnika mnoge odredbe doživjele su brojne izmjene i to u pogledu odgovornosti prijevoznika, visine prijevoznikove odgovornosti, mo-gućnosti da prijevoznik odgovara i preko propisanih granica i dr.

Republika Hrvatska dužna je, u skladu s preuzetim obvezama, uskladiti svoje zakonodavstvo na području zaštite prava putnika s regulativom Europske unije jer ista ima vitalnu ulogu u zaštiti prava putnika.

Ključne riječi: zaštita prava putnika, promet, sigurnost, odgovornost

1. Uvod

U današnje vrijeme postoji čvrsta potreba za međunarodnom povezanošću i međunarodnom zavisnošću te dolazi do stalnog usavršavanja prometnih mogućnosti u sklopu intenzivnog ra-zvoja proizvodnih i tehničkih sredstava pri kojima se ukidaju sve granice ekskluzivnosti u dome-ni prijevoza osoba. Neophodnost što bržeg savladavanja prostora predstavlja jednu od osnovnih karakteristika suvremenog načina života.

Sve do XIX. stoljeća prijevoz robe predstavljao je jedini način privrednog iskorištavanja prije-voznih sredstava da bi nakon industrijske revolucije čiji je zamah pokrenuo ogroman val migra-

Aleksandra Vasilj: Jačanje pravnog položaja putnika – potreba usklađivanja nacionalnih propisa s međunarodnim konvencijama i propisima Europske unije

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cija ljudi u potrazi za boljim uvjetima rada i života. Prvi putnici mogu se smatrati trgovci i istra-živači nepoznatih krajeva.

Polovinom XIX. stoljeća dolazi do uvođenja pare u brodarstvu te unaprjeđenja brodograd-nje i ostalih grana prijevoza po moru, a javljaju se i prvi organizirani prijevozi putnika – iseljeni-ka u novootkrivene izvaneuropske zemlje. Uvjeti prijevoza iseljenika bili su u formi najgore ek-sploatacije pa su glad i iscrpljenost tijekom putovanja često uzrokovali širenje velikih epidemi-ja, no ipak se u slučajevima ovakvih prijevoza radilo o ugovorima o prijevozu putnika s obzirom na postojanje relativno slobodnog ugovaranja prijevoznih usluga kao i na činjenicu da su putni-ci – iseljenici plaćali prijevozninu i tako prema brodarima stjecali izvjesna iako ograničena prava.

S vremenom je putnički promet dostigao takve razmjere da dolazi do temeljitog preobražaja ove vrste prijevoza tako da se težište poslovanja pomorskih poduzeća počelo prebacivati s prije-voza robe na prijevoz putnika pa se tako postupno uspostavljala neka vrsta specijalizacije u po-morskom prijevozu.

Početkom I. svjetskog rata dolazi do privremenog zastoja u prekomorskoj putničkoj plovidbi. U II. svjetskom ratu dolazi do prekida putničkog prometa da bi nakon rata većina pomorskih ze-malja ponovno uspostavila svoje tradicionalne brodske prekooceanske linije.1 Pored pomorskog prijevoza javlja se i cestovni prijevoz iako je od starog vijeka bio prilično razvijen predstavljao je manje – više iznimnu pojavu prvenstveno uslijed loših puteva te osobne i imovinske nesigurno-sti putujući njima, neprikladnih prijevoznih sredstava i postojanja brojnih carinskih barijera iz-među država. Cestovni je prijevoz bio orijentiran na prijevoz stvari, a individualni prijevozi oso-ba imali su uglavnom sporedan karakter. Masovniji prijevozi osoba javljaju se početkom XIX. sto-ljeća kada omnibusi – nova prijevozna sredstva sve više potiskuju dotadašnje kočije, ali masovni-ji razvoj prijevoza putnika dolazi tek krajem XIX. st. i početkom XX. stoljeća kada uslijed naglog razvoja na području tehnike i tehnologije i razvoja automobilske industrije cestovni prijevoz do-biva sve veće značenje.2

Željeznički promet je relativno nova grana prometa čiji je snažniji zamah počeo tek u drugoj polovici XIX. stoljeća. Takva vrsta prometa omogućuje kontinuirani masovni promet po kopnu bez većeg utjecaja klimatskih čimbenika uz relativno niske troškove i zbog toga je željeznica ubr-zo stekla monopolski položaj u odnosu na druge grane kopnenog prometa.

U novije vrijeme naglo se razvio i zračni promet i to prvenstveno u pravcu prijevoza putni-ka. Zrakoplovstvo se naglo razvilo početkom XX. stoljeća kroz probne letove balona i cepelina. Izvanrednim podvigom Ch. Lindbergha koji je prvi bez slijetanja zrakoplovom preletio Atlanski ocean otvorena je mogućnost uvođenja letova između Europe i Amerike.

Prijevoz osoba morem, unutarnjim vodama, zrakom ili kopnom predstavlja kompleksno po-dručje s obzirom na to da se konkurencija pojedinih transportnih grana najviše održala na po-dručju prijevoza osoba. Prijevoz putnika kao postulat suvremenog turizma, ali i neophodna po-treba u svakodnevnom životu ujedno donosi i čitav niz problema o kojima pravo mora voditi ra-čuna.

Putnik jest najdelikatniji predmet prometovanja. Kao takav putnik je veoma zahtjevan, redo-vito očekuje i traži udobnost, sigurnost, redovitost, točnost, učestalost, brzinu, a uz sve to i eko-nomičnost. Da bi prijevoznici u većoj mjeri zadovoljili veoma visoke zahtjeve svojih putnika mo-rali su stalno podizati razinu svojih usluga odnosno svojih ponuda: usavršavati, modernizirati,

1 Brajković P.: „Odgovornost za fizički integritet putnika u međunarodnom transportnom pravu, Doktorska disertacija“, 1983., str.1-3.

2 Ibidem , str. 5.


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razvijati prijevozna sredstva, organizirati promotivne aktivnosti i pakete usluga no i podizati ra-zinu informacijskog sustava.

Jedan od najvećih zahtjeva putničkog transporta i prometa je sigurnost putnika. Sigurnost putnika implicirala je i stalno implicira brojna nova i bolja rješenja i to u raznim područjima tako primjerice proizvode se sve sigurnija prijevozna sredstva s više kapaciteta i bolje opremljena.

Putnički prijevoz i promet odvija se sukladno nacionalnim i međunarodnim pravnim pravi-lima, odnosno vrijedećim pravnim aktima. On može biti javni, za vlastite potrebe, nacionalni, međunarodni, tranzitni, pogranični, bilateralni, linijski, slobodni, prigodni, autotaksi, vodni, ko-pneni, zračni, svemirski itd.

Posebno je značajan međunarodni putnički prijevoz i promet u svim prometnim granama kako kontinentalni tako i interkontinentalni jer u njemu svakodnevno sudjeluju milijuni put-nika.

U putničkom prometu davatelji i korisnici prometnih usluga trebaju stalno imati na umu sve tehničke, tehnološke, organizacijske, ekonomske i pravne specifičnosti svake grane prome-ta, svakoga transportnog i plovidbenog pothvata jer jedino tako mogu osigurati siguran, redovit, udoban, brz i racionalan promet.

2. ZAŠTITA PRAVA PUTNIKA U DOMAĆEM CESTOVNOM PRIJEVOZU

Pruža li i koliko transportno pravo u Hrvatskoj zaštitu putnicima i žrtvama nesreće u prije-vozu i u kojem opsegu putnici uživaju prava u javnom cestovnom prijevozu i kako se njihova pra-va mogu legitimno ostvariti pred hrvatskim sudovima su od ključnih pitanja na koja se sve češće traže odgovori u hrvatskom pravu.

Izvor obveze prijevoznika na naknadu štete ozlijeđenim i smrtno stradalim putnicima pred-stavlja ugovor o prijevozu putnika. Na navedeni se pravni posao primjenjuju odredbe Zakona o obveznim odnosima ( u daljnjem tekstu ZOO) koje uređuju ugovor o prijevozu osoba.3 Primjena tog općeg propisa građanskog prava u transportnoj pravnoj materiji je specifična i postoji samo u materiji ugovora o prijevozu cestom unutar Hrvatske. Odredbe o odgovornosti prijevoznika iz ugovora o prijevozu putnika kogentne je naravi, prijevoznik ne smije općim uvjetima prijevoza ili drugim općim aktom ni na koji način ublažiti svoju odgovornost u odnosu prema zakonskim odredbama. Tako čl.697.st.3 ZOO propisuje “Ništetne su odredbe ugovora te općih uvjeta prije-voza, tarifa ili kojega drugog općeg akta kojim se ta odgovornost smanjuje.“

Prijevoznik na temelju ugovora o prijevozu putnika odgovara za tri osnovne prestacije:

- izvršenje prijevoza putnika na određenoj relaciji za koju je ugovor sklopljen i to onim prije-voznim sredstvom koje je određeno ugovorom i uz uvjete udobnosti i higijene koji se prema vrsti prijevoznog sredstva i udaljenosti puta smatraju nužnim ( čl. 694. ZOO),

- sigurno izvršenje takvog prijevoza, tj. bez oštećenja zdravlja, ozljede ili smrti putnika (čl. 697. ZOO),

- prijevoznik je dužan ugovoreni prijevoz izvršiti na vrijeme, tj. odgovara za zakašnjenje osim ako je do zakašnjenja došlo iz uzroka koji nije mogao otkloniti ni pažnjom dobrog stručnjaka (čl. 696. st. 1. i 2. ZOO).

3 Zakon o obveznim odnosima, Narodne novine, broj 35/ 05; 41/08.., čl. 694.-698.


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Važna novela ZOO-a iz 2005. jest odredba propisana u članku 697. st.1. u kojoj se precizno de-finira opseg štete nastale povredom sigurnosti tijekom prijevoza koju prijevoznik mora nakna-diti povrijeđenom putniku. Prema toj odredbi prijevoznik odgovara za sigurnost putnika od po-četka do završetka prijevoza uključujući i vrijeme izlaženja i ulaženja iz vozila kako u slučaju na-platnog tako i u slučaju besplatnog prijevoza te je dužan naknaditi imovinsku i neimovinsku šte-tu koja nastane oštećenjem zdravlja, ozljedom ili smrću putnika.

Razdoblje odgovornosti prijevoznika protegnuto je s razdoblja fizičkog kretanja vozila s put-nicima i na ono vrijeme u kojem putnik ulazi ili izlazi iz vozila. Prijevoznik za sigurnost i tjelesni integritet putnika u cestovnom prijevozu odgovara strogo po kriteriju objektivne odgovornosti što je odraz postignutog visokog stupnja zaštite prava putnika u domaćem kopnenom prijevozu. Prema čl. 697. st. 1. ZOO, iz te stroge sfere odgovornosti prijevoznik može izaći ako uspije doka-zati postojanje jednog od dvaju razloga oslobođenja od odgovornosti, a to su:

- da je šteta posljedica radnje samog ozlijeđenog putnika,- ili da je posljedica stranog uzroka koji se nije mogao predvidjeti, izbjeći ili otkloniti.

Postojanje više sile pri čemu je za izlazak iz sfere odgovornosti potrebno da prijevoznik doka-že kako se radi o uzroku koji je na prijevozno sredstvo djelovao izvana, dakle, nije se radilo o po-gonskoj pogrešci ili mani vozila za koje prijevoznik odgovara. Od prijevoznika se može potraži-vati naknada imovinske i neimovinske štete.4 U neimovinske štete nastale kao posljedica smrti putnika članovi njegove uže obitelji mogu tražiti naknadu obične štete i izmakle dobiti.5

Ukupnost svih šteta za koje prijevoznik odgovara može dosegnuti višemilijunske iznose da-leko više od ukupnog kapitala koji prijevoznik unosi u posao. Zakonski, prijevozniku suočenom s odgovornošću stoji na raspolaganju pravo na ograničenje odgovornosti po putniku i putovanju u kojem stoji da ako štetu nije prouzročio namjerno ili krajnjom nepažnjom prijevoznik je du-žan naknaditi štetu do iznosa predviđenog zakonom ili međun

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