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nvironmental Managementn Kenyaave the National Conservation Plans Worked

Wellington Nguya Wamicha

and

Justus nonda Mwanje

Environmental Forum Publications Series no. 2

Organization for Social Science Research

in Eastern and Southern Afric OSSREA)



D 20 ) ) Organization for Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa

OSSREA)

OSSREA acknowledges the support o Ford Foundation, Norwegian Agency forDevelopment Co-operation NORAD), Swedish Intemational Development Co

operation Agency SidaiSAREC), The Netherlands Ministry o Foreign Affairs, and

International Development Research Centre IDRC).

Mss. submitted 1997

All rights reserved . Published 20 ) )

Printed in Ethiopia

Copyediting: Taye Assefa

Text layouts : Eta em Engeda

rganization for Soc i l Science Rese rch in

Eastern and Southern Africa OSSREA)

P.O. Box 31971, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

F , 251 -1-551399E-mail : oss [email protected]

,



ontents

cknowledgements

Tables nd Figures

cronyms

I . Introduction

1.1 Natural Environment of Kenya

1.2 The Need for the Present Study

2. Background

2.1 A Global Overview

2.2 Environmental Initiatives in Africa

2 .3 Major Environmental Concerns at the National Level

3. Conservation Plans in Kenya

v

vv

4

7

8

12

3. I Historical Development of Resource Use Planning in Kenya 20

3.2 The Legal Framework

4. Major Environmental Actors and Their Mandates

4 .1 Central Government Ministries

4.2 Specialised Agencies and Presidential Commissions

4.3 Resources Mapping and Survey Agencies

4.4 The Role of Research Organisations

4.5 he Role of Non-Governmental Organisations

4.6 Regional Authorities

5. Why Haven t the Conservation PlansIPolicies Worked?

5 1 The Constitutional and Legal Framework

5.2 Resource Management Issues

6. Future Prospects

6.1 Constitutional Change

26

29

29

29

33

34

34

35

37

42



ontents V

6 2 Sectoral Legislation 45

6 3 Institutional Framework 45

7 Conclusion and Recommendations

7 1 Conclusion 45

7 2 Recommendations 49

8 Bibliography 52

Annex I: List o Statutes 58

Notes on Authors 62

•



cknowledgements

We are most grateful to Prof. George Eshiwani Vice-Chancellorof

KenyattaUniversity for availing us time n Kenya to prepare the paper and present it n Addis

Ababa Ethiopia. e are also deeply indebted to Prof. John Shiundu the Vice-•

President of OSSREA for his confidence n our ability to handle the task n a very

short time. e note with appreciation the secretarial services provided to us by Ms.

Peninnah W. Kariuki and Miss Rukia Kageha Kayasi . We sincerely thank the

Government of Kenya for readily making available through its officers all the

information we requested for reference. Last but not least we thank the various

agencies we visited during the research period.



Tables and igures.

V•

Table I.

Table 2

Table .

Table 4.

Table 5.

Table 6.

Table 7.

Table 8.

Table 9

Figure I.

Figure 2.

International ConventionsIPolicies on the Environment

I and Usc Conflicts in Kenya

Population ofKenya 1961

Agricultural Production in the African Areas 1960

9

13

21

22

Classification of the African I and 22

I and Transfer to Smallholder Settlement 23

Non-electrical Energy Requirements 1985-2000 25

Central Government Ministries 30

Government Specialised Agencies and Presidential Commissions 32

Administrative Units of Kenya 2

Main Drainage Areas in Kenya 6



CRONYMS

AHI

ASALS

CBD

CFCs

CILSS

CSI

ECA

FAO

GEMS

ICRAFIGADD

MASLNPKs

OAU

PACD

UN

UNCED

UNCHEUNCOD

UNESCO

UNIFEMWHO

WWF

African Highland Initiative

Arid and Semi -Ari< l Lands

Central Business District of an Urban Centre)

Chloro Fluor Carbons

Permanent Inter-State Committee on Drought Control in

the Sahel

Coastal Regions and Small Islands

Economic Commission for Africa

Food and Agriculturnl Organisation o UN

Global Environmental Monitoring System

International Centre for Research on AgroforestryInter-Govemmental Authority on Drought and Development

Metres Above Sea Level

Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium Fertilisers

Organisation o African Unity

Plan o Action to Combat DesertificationUnited a t i o n ~United Nations Conference on Environment and Development

United Nations Conference on Human EnvironmentUnited Nations Conference on DesertificationUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Culturnl

Organisation

United Nations Development Fund for Women

World Health Organisation

World Wide Fund for Nature

..V



I INTRODUCTION

1.1 Natural Environment of Kenya

1 1 1 Location o Kenya

The Republic of Kenya is situated on the C<lstern side of the African continent with acoastline that runs along the Western seaboard of the Indian Ocean. The equator

bisects the country into almost equal halves, being between 4° 40" N and 4° 04 S

latitudes . The country also lies between longitudes of 33° 50" E and 41 ° 45" E (Fig.

I) . The country has an area of about 580,367 km '.

1 1 2 Geology and Physical Features

From the Indian Ocean seaboard to about 200 meters above sea level (m.a .s. )Eastern Kenya is underlain by marine sediments of various ages that constitute aplain. Between about 200 and 1500 m.a.s. there is a fast-eroded plateau that is

underlain by metamorphic rocks, which are more than 500 million years old, of the

MOUlmbique Belt. In the central parts of Kenya, the Rift Valley and a complex of

high volcanic mountains interrupt the plateau. The spectacular Rift Valley runs theentire length of the country and has characteristic lakes from Turkana in the North to

Magadi in the South. Only Lake Naivasha and Bogoria have fresh waters . Inside andon either side of the Rift Valley there are volcanic rocks ranging in age from the

Miocene period to recent times, from I to 50 nlillion years old.

To the west of the Rift Valley there are metamorphic rocks with plateaux similar tothose of the East of the Rift Valley. However, the Lake Victoria basin has rocks of

the Nyanzian (Sedimentary and Igneous) System that arc more than 2000 million

years old. Kenya therefore has a wide range of physical features and hence climatic

characteristics change rapidly over very short distances . These also influence thevegetation and land use types .

1 1 3 Climate

Since Kenya lies within the equatorial zone, seasonal temperature variations areminimal. Such variations result from altitudinal changes . So Nairobi, being about

1900 m.a .s.l, has a mean annual temperature of about 20°C while Mombasa (at sea

level) has about 30°C. Due to marine influence, there is a narrow humid to sub

humid belt along the Indian Ocean. In the hinterland rainfall is also very muchcontrolled by the altitude, with modifications caused by large water bodies such as

Lake Victoria.

Typical rainfall distribution in Kenya is bi-modal whereby the long wet season ismainly from March to June while the short one is from October to December. To the

west of the Rift Valley the wet seasons may be longer due to influence by LakeVictoria. Rain failures culminating in drought have also occurred in the recent past,

for example, in 1960, 1966, 1974, 1983,1994 and 1997.



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Wamicha and Mwanje. Environmental Management in Kenya 3

1 1 4 Vegdation Types

Kenya has a narrow coastal strip (about 10 km wide) of high potential land in terms

of rainfall and soils. lbis strip, which used to be extensively covered with forests, has

now given way to agricultural production, urban settlements and tourist hotels. Along

the coastline in the intertidal zone are to be found mangrove swamps .

Most of the land between 100 to 1800 m.a.s.1 has poor scrub vegetation near thecoast which gradualIy changes to a barren desert in th Chalbi desert near Lake

Turkana to the north. Similar conditions, though ot so severe, occur in the

Northwest portion ofKenya to the west of the Rift Valley.

n Central Kenya, forests used to cover most of the humid and sub-humid areas on

the Rift ValIey volcanic complex extending Westwards to the shores of Lake

Victoria. Except on the high mountains (Kenya, Aberdares, Mau and Elgon) theseforests have now been cleared to give way to farmlands . Hence, by 1900 Kenya hadabout 30 of forest cover but by 1963 only 3 of the land surface of Kenya was

covered by forests . Currently, forest cover is estimated at below 2.5 of the

country s total land surface.

1.1.5 and se Types

The area capable of supporting intensive cropping and/or grazing without irrigation

is limited to the narrow strip of land along the Indian Ocean coastline and to the

higher elevations (above 1800 m.a.s.1). These are areas with a reasonable probabilityof receiving more than 900-mm annual average rainfall. Such arcas cover only about

20 of the land surface of Kenya. Hence about 80 of Kenya is a rangeland usedfor livestock and wildlife grazing.

1 1 6 Biodiversity and Renewable Resources

The major terrestrial ecosystems include the forests and grasslands ranging from

bush grasslands to pure grasslands . n the interphase between the aquatic and

terrestrial environments there are different types of wetland ecosystems. Freshwater

aquatic ecosystems in Kenya include a few inland lakes such as Victoria, Naivashaand Bogoria, and the rivers (Fig. 2). The saline aquatic ecosystems include most of

the Rift ValIey lakes such as Natron, Magadi, Elementaita, Nakuru, Baringo and

Turkana, and the Indian Ocean marine system.

These ecosystems are habitats of different plants (flora), birds (avifauna), and

animals (fauna) which have hence been exploited as renewable resources . Such

resources include wood, reeds and papyrus, fish, wild birds eggs (e.g . of ostrich)

and game meat. The Kenyan biodiversity has also been a major basis of the tourist

industry. Major threats to these resources have been, for example, deforestation,draining ofwetlands, overexploitation of the mangroves and polIution .

Some species of plants, birds, and animals are also threatened with extinction . Of

these the elephant and rhino have received worldwide recognition . Deforestation hasalso threatened many indigenous trees .



Environmental Forum Publications Series, no 2 4

Woodfuel, which is a renewable source of energy, is the most important in the energy

sector. Other sources of renewable energy include the hydroelectric power,

geothermal power, solar energy, wind energy, and sea-waves energy. Here it is only

the hydroelectric power that has been developed to an appreciable scale.

1.1.7 Non renewable Resources

The Kenyan economy is mainly based on agricultural production, for which soil is

the most important resource. This is a resource that is partly renewable, naturally

through weathering or artificially through the use of fertilisers . However, the use of

fertilisers is hindered by their costs . Some farmers also use fertilisers

indiscriminately, and this can lead to soil pollution .

Gemstones and gold are mined on a small-scale in many parts of Kenya. For

instance, gold is mined in Migori, Kilgoris , Vihiga and Kakamega areas of WesternKenya. Gemstones such as rubies are mined in Taita-Taveta District. The mining of

the newly found titanium is set to commence in Kilifi District, close to the littoral

environments . Quarrying of different types of building stones, murram, cement lime

and ballast is perhaps the most important mining activity in Kenya .

1.1.8 The Drainage Basins

The Rift Valley forms a major inland drainage basin with rivers such as Turkwel,

Kerio and Ewaso Nyiro in the south) which drain into lakes . River Ewaso Nyiro in

the north) drains into an inland wetland. To the east of the Rift Valley major riverswhich flow into the Indian Ocean include the Voi , Athi and Tana. To the west of the

Rift Valley, there is the expansive Victoria-Nile basin Fig. 2).

1.2 The Need for the resent Study

During the 1992 Rio de Janeiro Conference, the United Nations outlined the

challenges of environment and development in the World . In Kenya the environmental

and development challenges include ensuring an equitable and sustainable pattern of

development to meet the needs and aspirations of the people. Also the environment

and the natural resource base require to be enhanced . Other challenges for the

country include:

• ensuring sustainable industrial production

• developing/adopting environmentally sound technologies, and

• building capacity for sustainable development planning.

However while development planning has been very comprehensive throughout the

history of Kenya, environmental planning has received far less emphasis. Thedifferent aspects of environment have therefore been planned on a sectoral basis

rather than comprehensively. As is evident from the following, this sectoral planning

has failed to a varying degree:

• although Kenya has one of the most sophisticated soil conservation programs

in Africa, sedimentation is still a major threat to its dams and lakes;



Wamicha and Mwanje. nvironmental Management in Kenya 5

• Kenya derives enonnous income from wildlife through tourists yet some o

the large mammals, the most conspicuous, i.e., elephant and rhino, arethreatened with extinction; and

• while the Ministry o Environment and Natural Resources would likewetlands preserved in order to conserve their biodiversity, the Department oLand Reclamation would like the same wetlands reclaimed for agriculturalu

This is the dilemma. The current study therefore ' reviews sectoral environmentalplanning in Kenya and suggests how a comprehensive plan can be developed. n sucha plan, a clear statement on the financing o Environment Impact Assessment

. (EIA) o development projects, and Clean Technology and Conservation o

Resources , should be well spelt out. n other words, national development should beeconomically, socially, culturally, and ecologically sustainable.



Environmental Forum Publications Series, no. 2

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Wamicha and Mwanje nvironmental Management n Kenya 7

2 BACKGROUND

2 1 A lobal Overview

The absolute age of the earth is now taken to be about 4 .5 billion years. All living

organisms are believed to have been single-{:elled with simple undifferentiated matrix.This then transformed into the multicellular organisms, emerging in a full range of

multicellular body-plans that constituted the base on which dominant life in bothaquatic and terrestrial habitats has developed. Man is seen to have come late in the

game about I million years ago, although the primitive forms (the AustralopithecusLucy ) yield fossils of around 3 million in age.

The natural environment where man lives is complex and dynamic and that anyconservation plans designed by man must have the exposition of sensitivity.Consequently, different people think differently about what should be the right health

status of the natural environment. Henee the question: Have conservation plans in

Kenya worked?

2 I. 1 Environmental Awareness

Widespread global cnvironmcntal awareness is s id to have started in the 1930s. Bythen man realised that the technologies of the Industrial Revolution were not always

working or favouring the preservation of natural resources . This was mainly due towidespread cases of accelerated soil erosion . Awarcncss about soil salinisation was

also recorded . Land degradation therefore threatened food production and hencehuman survival.

2. I 2 Establishment ofU Organisations

Soon after its birth in 1945, the UN started establishing different organisations, some

devoted to environmental management. These include the Rome-based FAO, which

globally deals with the management of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries togetherwith the related natural resources ; and the Paris-based UNESCO is devoted toeducation in general where it can play a major role in the development of

environmental edueation curricula .

The Vienna-based International Atomic Agency has mandate to control hazardous

radiation sources . There are also the Geneva-based World Meteorologic.al

Organisation (WMO) devoted to atmospheric sciences and World HealthOrganisations (WHO), dealing with health including environmcntal health . Then thefirst Nairobi-based UN organisation is the Habitat, which is devoted to human

settlements. United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), which is the secondUN organisation in Nairobi, has mandate to co-ordinate research and conscrvation of

all global environmental resources.

2.1.3 Other International Organisations

Some monetary organisations such as the World Bank and International MonetaryFund (IMF) have been and continue to be involved globally in the exploitation of

natural resources . There are also multinational companies involved in manufacturing,



Environmental Forum Publication. Series, no. 2 8

mineral exploitation, agricultural production and trade. The last 3 decades have alsoseen the mushrooming o international NGOs involved in environmental affairs .

2.1.4 Global Inventories o Natural Resources

One or more o the UN organisations have co-<lrdinated such inventories . The SoilMap o the World was co-<lrdinated by FAO and UNESCO between the 1960s and

1980s. n 1984 assessment o the status and trend o desertification was undertakenby the UNEP. A similar assessment was also executed in 1990-91 and a World Mapo Drylands was prepared by the GEMS/GRID Progranune. Activity Centre o

UNEP. There is also the long-term WMO World Weather Watch Progranune whichcollects, analyses and disseminates both meteorological and hydrological data .Between 1970 and 1986 observations on the Ozone hole had confirmed that

consumption o CFCs was a major threat to the Ozone layer.

2 1 5 International Conventions/Policies

There are conventions/policies dealing with the different spheres (Pedolithosphere,Atmosphere, Hydrosphere and the Biosphere) o the environment. There are alsoconventions/policies on pollution which cut across these spheres (table I).

2 1 6 Global Conferences on the Environment

The 1972 Stockholm UN Conference on Human Environment (UNCHE) culminatedin the establishment o UNEP. There was also the Habitat I Conference in 1976 in

Vancouver, Canada, which discussed the question o adequate shelter for all human .

beings. The 1977 Nairobi UN Conference on Desertification UN COD) set out aPlan o Action to combat Desertification (PACD). n 1992 there was the Rio deJaneiro UN Conference on Environment and Development'(UNCED) which came outwith Agenda 21 . Then there was the Population Summit held in Cairo in 1994 andthe Copenhagen Social Development Conference (SDC) in 1995 . The Habitat II

Conference o 1996 in Istanbul, Turkey, looked at the process o urbanisation by

considering the goals o economic planning, environmental sustainability anduniversal justice.

2.2 Environmental Initiatives in Africa

2 2 1 Economic Reforms n Africa

In the recent past famine has become a major topical issue in Africa. As long asrainfall is sufficient for crop and pasture production famine in Africa is an economic

phenomenon. This is because African economics are still very much dependent on

agriculture, together with the related natural resources . So, economic reforms arealmost synonymous with agricultural reform. Hence, a UN Special Session on Africaheld in May 1986 was the first one ever devoted to the economic developmentproblems o a single continent.



Wamicha and Mwanje. nvironmentalManagement n Kenya

Table I International conventions/policies on the environment

Sphere ConventionIPolicy

a) Biosphere • CITES Convention on Trade in Endangered Species

• Convention on Biological Diversity 1992)

b) Pedo-Lithosphere • Ramsar Convention on Wetlands o International Importance

1971)

c) Hydrosphere

d) Atmosphere

e) Pollution

• Plan of Action to Combat Desertification PACD)

• World Soils Policy 1982)

• Convention for Prevention of Maritime Pollution by Dumping

• United Nations Convention on the Law o the Sea 1982)

• Convention f(l the Prevention of PoBution o Sea by Oil

• London Convention for the Prevention of Pollution fonn Ships

• Viena Convention for Protection of Qzone Layer 1985)• Montreal Protocol on Substance s that Deplete the Ozone Layer

1987)

• Nairobi Declaration on Climatic Change 1990)

• UN Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992)

• Basel Convention on the Ban of Trans-boundary Movements of

Hazardous Wastes 1989)

9

The UN Special Session on Africa, therefore, recommended a fundamcntal shift in

agricultural research priorities . Research was henceforth supposed to be geared

towards screening and adapting technology from the global agricultural research

system. The following items were highlighted for research :

• soil and water management techniques

• development of promising new) crops, including tree crops• animal nutrition

• range management.

One of the reasons why agriculture has suffered in Africa is because it has always

been the profession pursued by the elderly, illiterate people and the peasants. n many

African countries, government support and/or community organisation co-

operatives) has been minimal. Hence economic reforms towards a bettcr agriculturalproduction were initiated in many African countries in the 1980s to cater for these




drawbacks. In Africa South o the Sabara women provide food for the family. For avery long time, they have been like tenants on their husbands' land. Refonns to give

women more rights on land have therefore been initiated in several o these countries.The United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) has been playing a

major role in empowering women.

2.2.2 Afforestation Projects

Woodfuel is still the most important source o domestic energy in Africa. Trees arealso required as a source o timber both for domestic consumption and export. Treecutting can therefore lead to deforestation, soil erosion and desertification in manyparts o Africa. Regional tree planting initiatives have therefore been established, andthe Intemational Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) has a role to play.

2.2.3 Pest Control ProgrammesThe impact o various pests in Africa is illustrated by the following statements.Desert locusts have the potential o infesting the whole o Sub-Sabaran African

countrics. Over 10 million km' o Africa's land (i.e., nearly 40 o the tropical landin the continent) suitable for crop production and/or animal husbandry is infested

with tsetse fly Glossina Spp.). River blindness is a major handicap in thedevelopment o river basins (especially the Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal) in

West Africa. Guinea wonn afflicts many wetlands in Africa, especially in the

Southern Sudan. Such pests require regional organisations to control them.International support has also been recorded towards these efforts.

2.2.4 Conservation ofBiodiversity in Africa

In Africa, there is a rapid depiction o the living natural resources. Currently thereare efforts to implement the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). Forthis to succeed it will require political, economic, social, cultural, ecological, andbiological actions at country as well as inter-regional levels. The critical parts o

Africa requiring urgent action to save species and ecosystems have been identified by

the World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF).Deforestation, land degradation and desertification are the main processes affectingthe loss o biodiversity.

2.2.5 Efforts to Combat and Degradation/Desertification

During the 1968-1973 Sabelian drought, over 150,000 people and millions o

livestock died. In Africa, also desert encroachment is estimated at 1 5 million ha perannum and is hence threatening about 34 o the land surface o the continent. Alsoabout 36 o the population or 186 million people out o the 513 million in 1983

were in danger. This has called for initiatives to combat desertification.

The Economic Commission for Africa (ECA) Conference o Ministers adopted

resolution 264 (XIII) in 1975 initiating technical efforts to combat desertificationAlso in 1993, the Organisation o African Unity (OAU) Council o Ministers meeting

adopted, in its 57th Ordinary Session in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Resolution

(CMlRES 1438/LVIII). This called on experts to:



Environmental FOMlm Publications Serie no. 2 2

traditional environmental conservation and protection. This initiative has begun along

the Eastern African coastline and should spread to other coastlines of Africa.

2 2 8 Refugees nflux and Environmental DamageAfrica has experienced more tragedies than any other continent in recent memory.

This has had tremendous implications for the continent's natural environmental

health, as well as political, social, economic, and cultural life. The problem of

refugees in the Great Lakes Region continues to pose tremendous threats to

environmental conditions in the host states . Such threats emanate from civil war, the

associated refugee camps and use of resources such as building materials (timber and

building stones) and water.

2.3 Major Environmental Concerns at the National Level

2 3 Deforestation

The first major pressure on forests is clearing for agricultural land . Also about 75

of the energy consumed in Kenya today is derived from forest products . There is also

increased demand for fuelwood, charcoal, timber and wood products . This has led to

deforestation in many regions of the country resulting in the ecosystems' instability .

2 3 2 Water Shortage and Pollution

t has been the government's policy to provide potable water to all Kenyans by theyear 2000 AD . A Water Master Plan is in place. However, it is reported that by the

year 1991 an estimated 7 million Kenyans were without reasonable access to water

while about 3 million lacked adequate sanitary facilities Lack of adequate waterhas therefore been rated as one of the most serious problems in most Kenyan

districts, especially in the ASALs.

With increasing intensification of agriculture, an emerging concern is that of

pollution of water bodies from agrochemicals . Pollution from industriaVurban

effluents has also taken place.n

addition, there is destruction and pollution ofunderground water aquifers by petrochemicals such as motor oils and other

pollutants. In some eases pollution has made drinking water a health hazard to human

beings, livestock and wildlife.

2 3 3 Land Degradation and Decline ofAgricultural Productivity

Land degradation has occurred extensively in Kenya mainly due to soil erosion .

Initially erosion results in the loss of topsoil which is usually the most fertile in terms

of plant nutrients .

Soil erosion is a consequence of overgrazing in the ASALs and poor land

management in cultivated areas. This results in reduced agricultural productivity and

land degradation. The advanced stage of soil erosion results in very deep gullies that

are difficult to rehabilitate. However, awareness about soil erosion is quite

widespread in Kenya.

Desertification is the process of land degradation in the ASAL areas . The following

have led to land degradation in these areas:



Wamicha and Mwanje. Environmental Management in Kenya 13

•

• overstocking, leading to overgrazing;

• low income and food deficiencies among the pastoralists, leading to charcoal

burning for a livelihood;

• communal land ownership and therefore lack of effective grazing

management systems;

• salinisation, especially in lands under irrigation;

• lack of:

exploitation of environmentally neutral livestock enterprises such as

honey production bee-keeping), camel production, and game farming;

sufficient livestock water sources and their poor distribution;

conservation ofwater catchment areas and protection of water sources;

adequate and ecologically suitable perennial range grass seed and fodder

trees to the pastoralists.

2 3 4 and se Policy and and se Planning

The high to medium potential land surface of Kenya is about 5 .2 million ha or about

20 of the country. This land is very precious both aesthetically and in monetaryterms . The quest for land has therefore generated differcnt conflicts in Kenya. Given

the existing land use and land tenure systems in the country, only in the high andmedium potential areas can we say that there exists a comprehensive tenure system.

Here, land predominantly belongs to individuals. However, in ASAL areas the

situation is different, as most of the land is communally owned. Hence major

environmental conflicts result from competition for land table 2), and water use.

•

Table 2 Land use conflicts in Kenya

Area

Land neighbouring game

reserves and national parks

AEZ and V

Hilltops and Hill sides

Riverine areas

and nSf conflict

• Wildlife destroying crops

• Poaching of wildlife• Competition for pasture and water resources between

wildlife and livestock

• Cultivation vs grazing

• Cultivation and/or grazir g vs afforestation for water

catchment protection

• Cultivation vs. riparian vegetation conservation

• Cultivation vs dry season grazing

Note: AEZ Agroecological Zones.



Environmental Forum Publication. Serie., no 2 4•

The 1994-1996 National Development Plan stressed the need for sustainable

development of land through appropriate management of the high potential land and

reclamation of the ASALs. However, land use policy on the system of laws, rules,

regulations .and land ownership is still lacking. Also lacking is a land use planor

zoning based on the suitability of land resources for socio-economic purposes .

Further, there is a lack of modalities for the transfer of public land to private

ownership. Their land management remains chaotic.

2.3.5 Population Growth Distribution and Impad on Natural Resources

The total population of Kenya has increased from II to 21.4, and 25 million in 1969,

1989 and 1995, respectively. The general population density was 27 and 37 persons

per km in 1979 and 1989, respectively. However, there are islands of very high

densities (300 - 500 persons per km ) in the high potential areas, but as low as fivepersons per km in the ASALs. Currently the country s population growth rate of

about 3.4 per annum which is one of the highest in the world. Due to the very high

population densities there has been over-exploitation of land resources with theconsequent decline in agricultural productivity and land degradation (deforestationand overgrazing).

2.3.6 Refugees Influx in the S Ls

In the ASALs of Kenya, especially within the North Eastern Province, refugees havebeen known to result in formidable high populatiolJ densities . These refugees then

compete for the available resources (water, land and energy) with the local people . In

some cases cyclic desertification has occurred around refugee camps .

2.3.7 Settlement Patterns Sedentarisation of Pastoralists and Squatterism

The land-use structure of most high potential areas in Kenya was historically

modelled on the exclusive European Settlement Policy. The dramatic socio-economic

changes and heterogeneity following independence in 1963 led to change in thispolicy. The government introduced settlement schemes for indigenous Kenyans to

take over the former White Highlands . However, in some cases these Kenyans were

not aequainted with the environmental conditions of the White Highlands, a factor

that then led to low agricultural productivity.

About 80 of the land surface of Kenya are ASALs and arc occupied by nomadic

pastoralists . Permanent settlements (market centres) dot throughout the ASAL area,

especially around the administrative centres due to the need for security . Also,

provision of water leads to an automatic settlement at water points, depending on thesecurity situation. Such sedentary settlements are rarely planned prior to

implementation.

In the urban areas the destitute establish poverty-stricken slum villages characterisedby unemployment. There are also squatters occupying government and private land.

Slum and squatter settlements are characterised by environmental health problems .



Wamicha nd Mwanje. Environmental Management n Kenya 5

2 3 8 Coastal Erosion ndRehabilitation

Several developments of building structures are taking place close to the shoreline. In

the case of the sea walls, some parts are affected by erosion. There are also problems

of siltation along the coastline and this affects marine habitats. As a result fish

catches are diminishing as the breeding habitats continue t be destroyed by human

use systems.

2 3 9 Loss of Genetic Resources and Biodiversity

Biodiversity encompasses all plants, animals and microorganisms together with their

interactions and habitats. Indigenous terrestrial and mangrove forests, coastal nd

inland wetlands, coral reefs and gardens, and other ecosystems are important for

genetic resources and biodiversity. These ecosystems are improperly exploited, withthe result of high ecological and economic costs. To overcome these costs, the

community needs to acquire knowledge and resources, as well as incentives t

sustainablly utilise the biological resources. It is noteworthy that the threat to genetic

resources and biodiversity is triggered by rising human population pressure and the

need to clear more land in order to increase food production.

2 3 10 Lack ofParticipatory Management ofNatural Resources

A trend of planning which Kenya inherited from the colonial system was the Top-

down Approach to environmental issues. This approach never sought the views ofthe local communities. Hence in many cases natural resources were regarded as

belonging to the government. For example most resources in National Parks and

Game Reserves are usually perceived by people as belonging to the government due

to the overprotection and lack of efforts to create awareness through community-

based progranunes. On the other hand people around Game Reserves, which are

managed by the local County Councils, are increasingly accepting the resources

therein. The struggle for the control of nature reserves between County Councils and

Community Groups has already been recorded in the Trans Mara and Lake Baringo

areas. More is envisaged in the future as awareness increases and the politics of

resource control becomes more important in society.

The Kenya Wildlife Service new policy has therefore been reviewed to include

aspects of community participation. Communal groups for soil erosion and

afforestation also serve to enhance community awareness . The role of NGOs in this

regard could be enhanced .

2 3 11 Conflicts in Resource Utilisation

Due to increasing human settlements, conflicts of resource utilisation occur betweenman and wildlife, agriculture, fisheries and forestry . The conflicts are caused by

increasing population in settlement schemes, which in tum brings man face to face

with wildlife in his endeavour to fish or to cultivate crops or even to obtain woodfuel.

The wild animals often stray out of the National Parks or Game Reserves and

damage crops and sometimes cause loss of human life. These conflicts are more

severe during the drought period when, for instance, elephants are very notorious forcausing havoc to crops and water installations .



nvironmental Forum PublicationsSeries. no 2 16

Land and water-use conflicts have also been experienced in many areas . As the

demand for land for settlement schemes continues to rise, the traditional grazing

areas are being taken up by ranchers and settlers from other areas/districts, as is the

case with water catchment areas. This process has resulted in the pushing of thepastoralists into rather more marginal areas, with enhanced resource use impacts

which may lead to rapid land degradation .

2.3.12 Absence 0/a Common Environmental Law

In Kenya Parliamentary Acts governing environmental matters are mainly sectoral.

For example, there is the Agriculture Act, the Water Act, the Land Acquisition Act,

etc . At the same time, these sectoral legislations usually lack co-ordiriation such that

insome cases they may be contradictory. For example, in order to increase food

production, the Agriculture Act may allow the draining of wetlands and bottomlands

in a reclamation project. Such action contradicts any endeavour to conserve Wetland

Biodiversity. The harmonisation of environment-specific legislation could improve

the conservation practice.

2.3.13 Absence o Environmental Economics in Natural Resource Management

The economics of development is well developed in Kenya. The country has always

given estimates of costs for every National Development Plan. However, expenditure

on environmental conservation and/or improvement is only incorporated accidentally.

The result has been the neglect of the conservation of fragile ecosystems, resulting in

serious damage to water, soil and genetic resources, hence land productivity.

2.3.14 The Poverty Problem

Poverty in Kenya is pervasive and getting much worse . The poor people in Kenya

recognise very clearly the gravity of their situation, and possible mitigating options.

However they have no capacity to implement the latter.

Recent studies on the poverty situation in Kenya has revealed that the poor are

ycarning for some action against the problems afflicting them. One ex-Mau Mau

freedom fighter, Muthuni, put it thus: Don t ask me what poverty is because you

have met it outside my house . Look at my house and count the number of holes in

the walls . Look at my utensils and the clothes that I am wearing. Look at everything

and write what you can see. What you see is poverty (1996) .

In copping with poverty, one of the popular options is to exploit whatever natural

resources that could be found within the living environment, such as vegetation, withthe consequence of land degradation.

A disturbing overall feature of the poverty situation is the apparent long-term trend of

impoverishment. Resource use is equally deteriorating. To improve on the

conservation practice in Kenya, the poverty situation must therelore be urgently

tackled.



Wamicha nd Mwanje Environmental Management in Kenya 17

2.3.15 Impacts o he Structural Adjustment Programmes SAPs)

The African debt crisis is a fusion of social forces characterised by organisation anddistribution of wealth under the capitalist system of economic management. By

November 1992, Africa's total debt stood at around US$300 billion.

Of the total debt servicing payment from Sub-Saharan Mrica (excluding Nigeria),nearly 30 of it goes to paying loans given by the private banks. The African debtsystem is driven by the market economy and governed by making of profits . n tbisregard all consumable commodities are produced for the market and not simply forhumans. With tbis we have exploitation (of the meagre natural resources),accumulation and domination as major facets of the capitalist system. We know thatAfrica is endowed with a wealth of natural resources, Kenya included.

The World Bank has recently found it prudent to talk about poverty eradication.While it is the view of the World Bank that SAPs are necessary for Africa' seconomic revival and agricultural growtb, it is gratifying to note, however, that theBank has recently admitted that it made mistakes in introducing structural adjusttnentprogranunes in Sub-Saharan Africa, including Kenya. The mistakes are founded onthe assumptions they made at the time of introducing the SAPs policy. However,damage has already been made on the African natural environment.

2.3.16 Impacts o Famine

n the advent of a famine in Kenya, it is foreseen that disastrous impacts on thenatural environment, on the economy, as well as on political fronts are eminent.Famine is a sure weapon for causing the destruction of natural resources throughpoor exploitation strategies, decline of economic growtb and the death of democracy.The country is poised to witness extensive practice of the disturbing phenomenon of

food for votes in its democratic process, a feature that threatens the free practicenecessary for effective natural resource conservation.

n the Sessional Paper No. 10 of 1965 based on African Socialism, the Governmentof Kenya set out to eradicate hunger and other social ills. The natural resourcesdevelopment has therefore focused on: reduced over-reliance on foreign debtpropelled economic policies; grassroots initiatives that view food security from thehousehold level, and articulated resource conservation policies. So far present effortsin tbis regard are yet to yield tangible results in the form of organised and effectiveconservation plans .

2.3.17 Environmental Health

With the current commercial activities and potential for industrial growtb, Kenyanurban centres require co-ordinated planning to be able to cope with environmentalproblems that go with such growtb . In the past, there has been a lot of unplannedconstructions which have affected the physical development of these centres .Mushrooming residential areas often have poor road communication, poor drainageand poor sewerage system.



•

avirollmeataJ orum Publicatioas Serie s '::c . 2=--_ _ _ _ ;I- -.

n general, the garbage collection by the Nai robi City Council for example, is below

th expected standards and could do with privatisation. The sewerage system is

choked, oxidation ponds are overloaded and are being encroached on by upcoming

residential estates, such as Soweto Housing Scheme in Embakasi area .Communicable diseases in urban centres of Kenya are on the increase. Environmentalhealth is therefore lacking and thus causing serious resource development problems

which impact negatively on conservation practices.

2 3 18 Wildlife Menaces

Wildlife menaces are directed at livestock and crops mainly in areas next to the game

reserves. To minimise such problems, the Ministry ofTourism and Wildlife, with the

assistance of the provincial administration, should have carried out field education

for the local community through Chiefs barazas on the need to exercise basicprotection. It may also be necessary for the game reserves to be partl y fenced off

especially in areas adjacent to human settlements . A better way of controlling

animals should be found and implemented with urgency. COlIfhcts between man and

wildlife reduce food and income ai household level but also a lot of time is spent

trying to keep the smaller animals like monkeys and squirrels from destroying crop s.

2 3 19 Food Insecurity•

Most communities in Kenya rely on rain-fed agriculture for food production .

However, given the poor soil fertility in two-thirds of the Republic, and also the factthat most of the districts are either arid or very arid, there is sometimes insufficient

food production. The monopoly of prime agricultural lands by the rich contributes tothe famine situation.

2 3 20 Fisheries Depletion

There has been a significant drop in the recorded fish output in most inland lakes and

along the shoreline of the Indian Ocean . Possible reasons for this may be the highsiltation of the lucustrine environments and ocean pollution . Also the reduction in the

quantity of water entering the inland lakes due to irrigation activities intensified

around such lakes as the Naivasha, Turkana and Victoria has been recorded. Another

factor that could be of importance is the over-exploitation of the diminishing fish

stocks . However, in the case of Lake Victoria, the inversion of the dreaded and

rapidly spreading water hyacinth is thought to have destroyed productive fi shing

grounds in the region. Serious conservation issues are therefore experienced withinthe lucustrine and coastal littoral environments of Kenya. In the latter case the

problem has been compounded by lack of water. Furthermore , due to lack of marine

police, it has become increasingly difficult to monitor activities of foreign vesselswhich are often engaged in fishing activities.

2 3 21 Mining and Quarrying

There are several small-scale and large-scale sand harvesting enterprises in Kenya.The most affected district being Machakos e.g ., along Athi River) . Stone quarrying

is equally a real problem in rural Kenya . This unplanned mining is increasingly



Warnicha and Mwanje. Environmental Management n Kenya 19

threatening the water courses in the country. Coral rocks mining in coastal areas is

creating instability in coastal ecosystems. The recent discovery of large deposits of

titanium in the Magarini Sands of Mamburui and Sokoke areas of Malindi District is

likely to enhance the vulnerability of coastal ecosystems when exploitationcommences. Proper and thorough Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies

could be helpful.

s a major cause of land degradation, it is poised to increase with the rising demand

due to rapid growth of Kenya' s urban centres, especially Nairobi and Mombasa. naddition, the operators of such mines and quarry never rehabilitate them, thereby

causing serious conservation problems.

2 3 22 Demoralised Professionals

The country continues to witness the proliferation of demoralised professionals

working in government service, national universities, and even in certain private

sector establishments . Due to the poor remuneration paid for the high quality services

offered, some professionals have been forced start engaging themselves in activities

unrelated to their training background. This has led to internal as well as external

brain drain. Hence, there is a low commitment to the proper implementation of

conservation plans.

2 3 23 ids PandemicThe AIDS pandemic has exerted major stress on natural resources management.

Apart from the rapidly increasing rate in the demise of highly trained scientists,

resource managers, policy makers, etc . even skilled ordinary citizens engaged in

conservation activities have not been spared. The disease, while it is poised to

continue to have an impact on the conservation practice in Kenya , is predicted to

have adversely affected the national economy, thereby triggering a vicious cycle of

damage on the natural environment.

2 3 24 Gender Issues

A larger proportion of the Kenyan population in the rural areas is women, who

experience the roles of being housewives, motherhood and food providers . Given their

daily activities, women are the actual managers of natural resources .

The new world concern with environmental protection and conservation has been

used to control use of some of these resources . Notable in this regard is the Kenyan

Development Plan of 1984-1988, which states that the main concern with

environment ... is to control human behaviour . Since attitudes and perceptions

influence practice in resource utilisation, women have an important role in

environmental management. This continues to be a major issue in Kenya.




3 CONSERV TION PL NS IN KENY

3.1 Historical Development of Resource Use Planning in Kenya

3.1.1 Before 1900: The Pre Colonial Period

During the pre-colonial era, resource management in the interior of Kenya depended

very much on whether a group was agrarian or pastoral. The agrarian societies

depended very much on tilling the land for crop production . The pastoralists on the

other hand believed that all livestock was given to them by God. Most groups lived

almost wholly on milk, blood and flesh, supplemented with what they obtained

through barter trade with the agrarian societies along the border areas . The

pastoralists also had better-organised warriors to extend and protect their territories .

Both the agrarian and pastoral societies left large tracts of land for resource

management purposes, whose disruption constituted a major environmental problem

in Kenya.

Along the Kenya coastline the seeds of colonialism were sowed mainly with the

coming of the Portuguese in the 1500s. However, these were removed mainly by the

people of Asian origin, especially the Arabs. When Seyyid Said made his imperial

seat in Zanzibar, then about 20 km strip from the coastline to the interior was

annexed as part of his empire along the East Coast of Africa. This disadvantaged the

pcople of African descent because the strip had land of high agricultural productionpotential.

3.1.2 1900 1930: Settlement in the White Highlands

The colonial white settlers erroneously perceived any tract of land left fallow as no

man s land and annexed it The colonial white settlers began to move into these

territories, thus effectively creating barriers that separated the different societies

which hitherto interacted freely as in, for example, Thika District between the Kikuyu

and Akamba people or in the Limuru area between the Kikuyu and Maasai . Then

other groups such as the Maasai were moved from areas where land was of highpotential to areas of low potential. The net effect was to increase population densities

in the low potential areas such that by 1930 some pockets had densities of up to 500

people per km , which led to accelerated land degradation.

3.1.3 1931-1953: Consolidation o White Settlements

A European Settlement Board (ESB) was fonned in 1945 with an annual budget of

£2 million per year provided by the Colonial Government. By 1960, the Board hadsettled 493 White fanners on about 1 2 million ha of land. Most of the Europeans

settled in the fonner Kenyan White Highlands between 1918 and 1948. During this

period the African land resources development was mainly administered through the

African Land Development Board (ALDEV), without any specific plan up to 1946.

Development was essentially piecemeal in the African areas and limited almost

entirely to subsistence crops such as maize, beans, etc.

It was during this period that the degradation of African land was realised. This was

env kenya part 1

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