vm Congreso Latino Americano Sobre Espiritu Empresarial.25 de 19948th Latin Arnerican Conference On Entrepreneurial
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Cali, Columbia, Marzo 23, 24 Y
Entrepreneurship andManagement: Differing ButComplementary Processes
by Louis Jacques Filion
Cahier de recherche n° 94-04-01
Avril 1994
~
Abstract
This paper highlights the differences between managers and entrepreneurs. It showsthat the self-awareness attributes of managers and entrepreneurs differ considerably.Know-how is also different, with managers' know-how being focused on resourceorganization and entrepreneurs' know-how on defming contexts. The paper discussesthe consequences of these differences on education. Management education shouldhelp students understand organizational context 50 that they can operate efficiently andeffectively, whereas entrepreneurship education should focus on defming andarchitecturing contexts.
ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND MANAGEMENT:DIFFERING BUT COMPLEMENT ARY PROCESSES
The need to develop programs, courses and training activities inentrepreneurship seems to be increasing yearly in a growing number 0 fcountries. QJ.testions often raised by people developing these programs are:What is different in management and entrepreneurship7 What should anentrepreneurship education program contain7 What courses should be offered7How should the courses be given7 This paper does not set out to answer a1l thequestions. What it does is to present a certain number of guidelines developed tomeet education needs. It is based on a decade of experience iD entrepreneurshipresearch and the design and management of undergraduate and graduateuniversity-Ievel small business and entrepreneurship education programs.
MANAGEMENT AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP: SOME DIFFERENCffi
Timmons (1978), Hornaday (1982), Brockhaus and HornHisrich (1986) made a survey of the literature on the commonoften attributed to entrepreneurs. These characteristics are pre1 below.
TABLE 1Common Characteristics of Entrepreneurs
TenaciousAble to tolerate ambiguity and uncertaiGood users of resourcesModerate risk-takersImaginativeResults-oriented
These basic characteristics can be found in self-employe4business operators and entrepreneurs in general. HIcharacteristics were identified that are common to successful(Filion, 1991). They are set out ln Table 2.
Characteristics
Entrepreneurial values and culture acquired through contactwith at least one entrepreneurial model in their youthExperience of businessDifferen tiationIntuitionInvolvementHard-workersRealistic dreamers (visionary)LeadersModerate networkersRelations system of their own with employeesCon troll ers of behaviour among people around themLearning patterns of their own
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INTRODUCTION
. (1982), Brockhaus and Horwitz (1986) andthe literature on the common characteristics
These characteristics are presented in Table
TenaciousAble to tolerate ambiguity and uncertaintyGood users of resourcesModerate risk-takersImaginativeResults-oriented
in self-employed people, smallgeneral. However, other
ln to successful entrepreneurs
TABLE 2Successful En trepreneUTSof
2
Wortman and Birkenholz (1991) offer a condensed overview of the field ofentrepreneurship. Our concem Is not as much with the psychologicalcharacteristics of entrepreneurs as with the dlfferential aspects of how theyoperate: in other words, with how they conceive, design and operate theirhuman activity systems.
Mintzberg (1975), Boyatzis (1982), Kotter (1982) and Hill (1992) aIlexamined the work of managers. These studies reveaI considerable differencesin the operating methods of managers and entrepreneurs, as Table 3 shows.
TABLE 3Differences in the Activity Systems of Managers and Entrepreneurs
Mana2ers Entreoreneurs
Work on efficient and effective use of Set a vision and objectives andresources to reach goals and objectives identify resources to help realize
them
Key is adapting to change Key is initiating change
Work pattern implies rational analysis Work pattern implies imaginationand creativity
Operate within an existing fram,
Work centred on processes that take theenvironment into account
Managers pursue objectives by making effective and efficient use ofresources. They normally operate within frameworks previously defined bysomeone else.
The organizations created by entrepreneurs, however, are really anextrapolation of their subjective worlds. What entrepreneurs do is c1oselylinked to how they interpret what is happening in a particular sector of theenviron ment. Their own knowledge of a specific market or the development ofa new product or manufacturing process will lead them to envision and marketsomething different. They define ways of doing things that reflect what theythemselves are, and their success depends on how appropriate and differentwhat has been defined is and how it meets changing needs. Not only doentrepreneurs define situations, but they imagine visions of what they want toachieve. Their main task seems to be to imagine and deftne what they want to doand, often, how they are going to do it.
Generally speaking, management is associated with Jentrepreneurship with intuition, although in both cases t]considered to be predominant rather than exclusive attributes.activities require a systemic framework that includes concepts [Drucker, 1985], although on a different level to management,activities also demand elements of intuition and imagination.
Define tasks and roles that createan organization framework
.ework
Work centred on the design ofprocesses resulting from adifferentiated view of theenvironment
rationality andthese should be
Entrepreneurial[Peterson, 1981;
, and managerial1. However, the
3
conceptual activities and skills of the two groups being different, theireducational requirements should also be different.
ENTREPRENEURIAL AND MANAGERIAL EDUCATION
These basic differences between managers and entrepreneurs demandfundamentally different educational and training methods. ln educationgenerally, emphasis is placed on knowledge acquisition, whereas inmanagement education it is placed on acquisition of know-how, and inentrepreneurship education, on self-awareness [Gasse, 1992]. Table 4 examinesthe consequences of the differences listed in Table 3 on educational approaches.
TABLE 4K.ey Differences between Managerial and Entrepreneurial Education
Manaszerial Education EntreDreneurial Education
Affiliation culture supported Leadership culture supported
Centred on group work and group Centred on individual progressioncommunication
Works on the development of bothsides of the brain with emphasison the left side
Develops patterns that seek abstract,general rules
Based on the development of self-awareness with emphasis on adapt-ability.
Focused on acquisition of know-how inmanagement of resources and ownarea of specialization
This limited comparison brings out two complementary concepts: know-how and self-awareness. Both are manifested differently in managers andentrepreneurs. ln terms of self-awareness, many authors insist on theadaptability of managers [Archambault, 1992; Hill, 1992], whereas forentrepreneurs one of the key words is perseverance [Homaday, 1982; FiUon,1991]. ln terms of know-how, managers must use rational approacbes, butwithin a pre-defined working framework. Entrepreneurs, on the other band.must take an imaginative approach and define their own working framework.They must identify a niche and then imagine a vision, or a space to be occupiedon the market and a type of organization needed to do so. Research onentrepreneurial activity systems shows that an entrepreneur's work consistsmainly of defining contexts and working frameworks [Filion, 1990].
The following sections examine some specifie aspects of entrepreneurialeducation and suggest approaches that could be used to provide better supportfor the particularities of the discipline.
Works on the development of bothsides of the brain with a strongemphasis on the right side
Develops patterns that seek con-crete, specifie applications
Based on the development of self-awareness with emphasis onperseverance.
Focused on acquisition of know-how directed towards the definitionof contexts that lead to theoccupation of a market space
4
ln any educational program, what is important is not just what is leamt,but how it is learnt; in other words, the learning pattern established.Participants in an educational program should feel comfortable and ready toplay the new role for which they are being prepared. An entrepreneurshipprogram should therefore concentrate on the development of self-awarenessand the acquisition of know-how rather than simply on the transmission ofknowledge. The self-awareness to be leamt should focus on autonomy, self-confidence, perseverance, determination, creativity, leadership and flexibility[Timmons, 1978; Homaday, 1982; Brockhaus and Horwitz, 1986; Hisrich, 1986].The know-how developed should focus mainly on how to define situations; this,as we saw eartier, is the main activity of entrepreneurs: knowing andunderstanding markets, identifying business opportunities, selecting targets,imagining visions, designing and structuring organizations and animatingthose organizations. Basic management know-how is also useful: in addition tothe PODC subjects (planning, organizing, directing and controlling), it couldinc1ude accounting, finance, marketing, information systems, etc. Care isneeded, however, because all too often entrepreneurship and small businessprograms take on a management perspective, because this is what the programdesigners are used to. They are familiar with it. ln some cases, existingmanagement courses will be inc1uded in an entrepreneurship or smalI businessprogram with no attempt to adapt them to reflect the entrepreneurial or smaUbusiness contexte
Here, contingency is vital if panicipants are to leave the programproperly prepared to succeed in their new entrepreneurial roles. Specialists inthe field have already shown that entrepreneurship programs should bedifferent from administration programs [Gibb, 1987; Brown and Bumett, 1989;Kirby, 1989; Thorpe, 1990; Johannisson, 1991; Filion, 1992; Ulrich and Cole, 1992].Béchard and Toulouse (1993) ev en developed a sophisticated grid to c1assifyentrepreneurship education approaches as such. Table 5 sets out someguidelines for the development of entrepreneurship education activities andprograms, and Appendices 1 to 7 show how the se guidelines can be applied toprogram, course and case design.
TABLESGuidelines for Entrepreneurship Education Activities
. Each course should be designed to allow participants to identify what theywant to learn and to define the framework within which it Is to be learnt[Rlion, 19891.
. Include multi-instruction strategies.
. Be concrete and practical.
. Introduce material that will be useful in nractice once the course is over.
. Each course should be seen by participants as a learning activity and not justas the transmission of knowledge by the teacher.
5
. Each course should include interaction with real entrepreneurs throughcase studies, videos, meetings with entrepreneurs in the c1assroom and fieldwork in which at least one entrepreneur is studied in depth.
. Each course should inc1ude personal follow-up of each partidpant's learningobjectives. Entrepreneurship education resembles leadership education inthat it requires at least a minimum of individual follow-up.
Case studies should be properly adapted to the characteristics of the field.They should help participants learn to understand contexts and definesituations.
.
Program details will depend on institution level: elementary, secondary,college, undergraduate or graduate university level, entrepreneurship centersand adult education services with no prerequisites and offering non-creditedtuition. At the elementary and secondary levels, programs should focus mainlyon self-awareness. The aim here is to develop "entrepreneuriability" [Fortin,1992]; that is, preparing students to create their own jobs by launching theirown enterprises. At the college and university levels, the focus should be onboth self-awareness and know-how.
Given the learning needs involved - understanding contexts and definingsituations - experience tends to show that entrepreneurial self-awareness andknow-how are best taught using exercises in which students define contexts(Appendix 5), work from written and persona! testimonies and descriptive casesbased on edited interviews with entrepreneurs (Appendices 6 to 7).
More than a decade of research into entrepreneurial activity systems andexperience in entrepreneurship education has taught the author theimportance of adapting entrepreneurship education to reflect whatentrepreneurs are and what they do. This means considerable differences in,for example, the use of cases in entrepreneurship education as compared withmanagement education. The teaching objectives in the two fields are quiteseparate. ln both, if the use of cases is to be valid, it must reflect the context ofthe discipline itself and the types of self-awareness and know-how required bythe people doing what the students are being trained for. Entrepreneurs areoften "deviants", playing very different business roles from managers. Forthem, self-awareness means identifying with models and understanding how todevelop and express their differences, whereas for managers it means learningto adapt to existing organization methods and cultures. Managers need to learnhow to understand organizational contexts and adjust to them; entrepreneursmust identify opportunities and conceive a way to exploit them. For managers,know-how means mastering their specialty areas; for entrepreneurs it meansdefming contexts from latent elements. Potential entrepreneurs - or students -c1early have much to leam from listening to experienced entrepreneursdescribing how they succeeded by imagining something new. Appendix 7 showssome of the advantages of using edited interviews as cases in entrepreneurshipeducation. The same applies to other type of educational material.
Here, both the design and the use made of educationalimportant. For example, a case may be used to teach studentsstrengths, weaknesses and coherence of the entrepreneurs studied.is as interesting to use it to teach them how to define contexts by
material areto assess the
However, ithaving them
6
draw up a questionnaire or exercise that help them develop their own approachand framework for understanding and defining contexts. They can then go onto make a comparative study of how entrepreneurs did it and how theythemselves would have done it. For instance, looking for elements of similarityin the detection of opportunities is always stimulating. Defining thecharacteristics of their environment, imagining a vision and the type ofenterprise they need to rea1ize their vision, and comparing aIl this with how areal entrepreneur did it, provides a fascinating learning experience forstudents.
Experience shows that as we become more specialized in an area ofeducation, we like to develop better-adapted teaching material.Entrepreneurship education should focus on the leaming of self-awareness andknow-how that will allow future entrepreneurs to develop an entrepreneurialmental framework. ln an education program, what matters is not only what istaught but also the leaming pattern established with the learning processinvolved. For students of entrepreneurship the learning pattern acquiredshould stimulate them towards continuous leaming and make them morecomfonable with the new entrepreneurial role they will be playing. Once theyhave acquired this basis, they will themselves deflne the managerial know-howthey need to leam if they are to realize theu vision.
Archambault, G. (1992). "Le perfectionnement des managerset des engouements". Gestion. May, 6-15.
Béchard, J.P. andfrom EducationalPaper No. 93-03-0
J.P. and Toulousec:ational Sciences".93-03-01, March.
Boyatzis, R.E. (1982). The ComDetent Manafler: A Mode! for EffectivePerformance. Wiley.
Brockhaus, R.H. Sr. and 1Entrepreneur" (1986). ln:Science of EntreDreneurshiD
Brown, R. and Burnett, A. (1989). "Enterprising Graduates and the EnglishGraduate Enterprise Program 1985-1989". Paper presented at the 12th National- - - -
United Kin2dom Sma11 Firms Policv and Research Conference. London.
Christensen, C.R. (1992). Teachimz and the Case Method.School.
(1985).Drucker, P.F. (1985). Innovation and
Erskine, J.A., Leenders, M.R. and Mau~. University of Western Ontario.
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES
au-delà des modes...
(1993). J.M., "Entrepreneurship Training: A LookMac1ean Hunter Entrepreneurship Chair Working
Horwitz, P.S. (1989). "The Psychology of theSexton, D.L. and Smilor, R.W. (Eds.), The Art and
~ ,Ballinger.
Harvard Business
Heinemann.Innovation and EntreDreneurshiD,
Mauffette-Leenders, LA. (1981). Teachiml with
7
FiUon, Lj. (1988). The Stratellv of Successful EntreDreneurs in Sma11 Business:Vision. RelationshiDs and AnticiDatorv Learninll. Ph.D. Thesis, University ofLancaster, Great Britain (UMI 8919064).
Filion, L]. (1989). "The Design of Your Entrepreneurial Learning System:Identify a Vision and Assess Your Relations System". Third Canadian Conferenceon Entrepreneurial Studies, September. Published in: McKirdy, ].G.M. (Ed.)(1989), Proceedimzs of the Third Canadian Conference on EntreDreneurialStudies. 77 - 90.
Filion, LJ. (1990). "Vision and Relations: Elements for an EntrepreneurialMetamodel". Tenth Annual Babson Entrepreneurship Research Conference,Babson College, MA, April. Published in: Churchill, N.C. ~. (Eds.) (1990),Frontiers of EntreDreneurshiD Research 1990. ProceedinSls of the Tenth AnnualBabson ColleSle EntrepreneurshiD Research Conference. Babson, 57-71.
FiUon, Lj. (1991). Vision et relations: Clefs du succès de l'entreDreneurMontreal.
FiUon, Lj. (1992). "Ten Steps to Entrepreneurial Teaching". Paper presented atthe 2nd NEDI (National EntreDreneurshiD DeveloDment Institute) NationalConference on EntreDreneurshiD Education, Moncton (Canada), June.
Fortin, P.A. (1992). Devenez Entrepreneur. QJ1ébec.
Gasse, Y. (1992). "Prospectives d'une éducation entrepreneuriale: vers unnouveau partenariat éducation-organisation". 9th Annual Conference.Canadian Council for Small Business and EntreDreneurshiD. Victoria (Canada),October.
Gibb, A.A. (1987).education and trainin
"Enterprise Culture - its meaning and implications forg". Tournaf of EurODean Industrial Trainin2. Il, 2: 3-38.
Becomin2 a Mana2er: Masterv of a New Identitv.Hill, LA.Business
( 1992).School.
Hisrich, R.D. (1986). "The Woman Entrepreneur: Characteristics, Skills,Problems and Prescriptions for Success". ln: Sexton, D.L and Smilor, R.W. (Eds.)(1986), The Art and Science of EntreDreneurshiD, Ballinger, 61-81.
Homaday, J.A. (1982). "Research about living entrepreneurs". ln: Kent et al.(Eds.) (1982), Encvclooedia of Fntreoreneurship, Prentice-Hall, 20-34.
Johannisson, J.A. (1991). "University training for entrepreneurship: Swedishapproaches". EntrepreneurshiD and Re2ional DeveloDment, 3, 1: 67-82.
Kirby, D.A. (1989). "Encouraging the Fnterprising Undergraduate". Educationand Trainin2, 31, 4: 9-10.
Kotter, J.P. (1982). The General Mana2ers. Harvard Business School.
Harvard
8
Lawrence, P.R. and Lorsch, J.W. (1967).Mana2inSl Differentiation and Inte2ration.
Mintzberg, H. (1975). "The Manager's Job:Business Review.July-August, 49-61.
Peterson, R.A. (1981). "Entrepreneurship and organization". ln: Nystrom, P.C.and W.H. Starbuck (Eds.) (1981), Handbook of OrSlanizational DesÏlim, Vol. 1,Oxford University Press.
Ronstadt, R. (1977). The Art of Case Anatvsis.
Thorpe, R. (1990). "Alternative Theory of ManagementEuroDean Industrial Trainin2. 14, 2: 3-1 S.
Timmons, J.A. (1978). "Characteristics and role demands of entrepreneurshipl\".American TournaI of Small Business. 3, 1: 5-17.
Ulrich, T.A. and Cole, G.S. (1992). "Instructional strategies for entrepreneurialeducation". ln: Proceedin2s. ICSB 37th World Conference, June, 586-605.
Wortman, M.S. and Birkenholz, W. (1991).global basis: an empirical based model".Conference. Vienna ,June, Vol. 1: 67-77.
OrlZanization and Environment:Harvard University Press.
Folklore and Facts". Harvard
Lord Publishing.
Education". TournaI of
"Entrepreneurship research on aProceedings, ICSB 36th World
9
APPENDIX 1
An Entrepreneurship Education
Basics of EntreDreneurship
Entrepreneurial
Entrepreneurial
Entrepreneurial
Tutorial
Strategy
New Venture
DescriDtion
This course isentrepreneurs.entrepreneurs.
awareness
progression
competencies
Creation
intended for people who are not sure if they want to becomeIt offers both an introduction to and awareness of the world of
The lengtb of tbe learning activity or course will vary depending on theinstitution 's own requirements. At university in QJ.tébec, the lengtb of coursesfor undergraduate and graduate levels is 45 bours (15 bours = 1 credit). It ispresented in fifteen three-hour sessions. The syllabus is as follows:
Presentation of the courseMeeting with two entrepreneurs (1.5 bours eacb)Role-play: case study of an entrepreneur.Discussion on the case (GW-4)What is entrepreneurshiplEnterprise case study (GW-4)The role of the entrepreneur in economic development:Part 1: General, inc1uding the increasing economic
businessPart 2: Regional (lE-l)Characteristics of entrepreneursVideo (lE-2)Competencies of entrepreneursPresentation and discussion of research results (IE-3)Individual meetings with participantsCompetencies of entrepreneursLeadership: role play and discussion (IE-4)
1.23.
4.
s.
6-
7.
8.9.
Program
EntreDODtion~:neurShiP
Small BusinessManaSlement ODtions*
Management of SBMarketing of SBFinance of SBOperations Mgt for SB
systems
Management of familybusinessPartnershipSelf-employedHomebased businessln trapreneurship
Informationfor SB
Accounting for SBExporting for SBSB environmentGloballzation and SBHuman resources mgt
in SB
APPENDIX 2
Entrepreneurial Awareness
role of small
10
Competencies of entrepreneursNegotiation: role play and discussion (lE-5)Competencies of entrepreneursImagination: scenarios, exercises and discussion (lE-6)Meeting with sma11 business operators (manufacturing, retail,Meeting with self-employed people (at least one home-based)Presentation of field work (GW-2)Presentation of group work on social entrepreneurship
10.
11.
1213.14.15.
Deliverv
The delivery of this course - as should be the case for aIl entrepreneurshipcourses - is a mix of instructional strategies (Ulrich and Cole, 1992), inc1udinginstructor-centred strategies (usually the first half of each session), interaction(the second half) , individual learning (through exercises), and experientiallearning (through group and field work).
At the entrepreneurship center, leaming activities (or courses) were designedby professional teachers but are delivered by entrepreneurs who are graduates.They follow the instructor's guidelines. We tried to achieve the best of bothworlds: to offer the basic structure of a professional instructor and thedynamics of a practitioner. Whoever delivers the activity is invited to apply the"ten steps to entrepreneurial teaching" (Fillon, 1992).
Evaluation
. Report:
. Role play and presentation of case studies (GW-4)2 x 10%. Individual exercises (lE) 6 x 5%
. Field work (GW-2)
. Social entrepreneurship
. Participation
lUfAL
DescriDtion
The objective of this course is to prepare participants to think and act likeentrepreneurs. It could also be called "Entrepreneurship Thinking andPractice". Participants study entrepreneur cases. They establish their ownentrepreneurial model based on the development of their vision and a supportrelations system. They assess their own learning needs required to do what theywant to do, and then select an entrepreneur accordingly. They build aquestionnaire with two sections: the fust relating to the entrepreneur and theenterprise, and the second fulfilling their own learning needs. At session Il,after the fieldwork is completed, they present their case studies (in groups of 2).
service)
20963096209620961096
10096
APPENDIX 3
Entrepreneurial Progression
11
Each member of the team then explains how the study fulfllled their learningneeds.
The syllabus is as follows:
1. Presentation of the course2 Meeting with an entrepreneur
Case study of an entrepreneur3. Entrepreneurial culture
Case study of an entrepreneur (GW-4)4. The field of entrepreneurship
Case study of an entrepreneur (GW-4)S. Entrepreneurial model
Discussion on an individual exercise (IE-1)6. Innovation
Discussion on an individual exercise (IE-2)7. Creativity
Discussion on an individual exercise (IE-3)8. Individual meetings with participants9. Opportunity detection
Logic of selection of a particular domain (1:&4)10. Vision
Discussion on an individual exercise (IE-5)11. Entrepreneurial activity systems
Presentations by students of a case drawn from an entrepreneurial fieldstudy (GW-2)
12 RelationsDiscussion on an individual exercise (lE-6)
13. Support for entrepreneurshipInvited guests: bankers, consultants, small business specialists, civilservan ts
14. Entrepreneurial alternatives: self-employed, homebased business,intrapreneurship, small business
15. Synthesis and entrepreneurial planning (SEP)Individual presentation of entrepreneurial plans
Deliverv
This course is delivered using the approaches described in Table 6. The firstpart of each session inc1udes a presentation by the teacher and discussionamong participants of a practical application of entrepreneurship thinking andpractice. The second part consists of group discussions based on actionlearning. There are about ten questions to be prepared by participants on thetopic of the day. Participants also have individual exercises to do betweensessions. The last session consists of presentations by participants of their ownentrepreneurial planning: their vision, how they are going to impIe ment it,their learning pattern, how they are going to use and improve it, and therelations system they need to develop to help them realize their vision.
Evaluation
. Report and presentation of case studies (GW-4)2 x 10% 20%
. Individual exercises (lE) 6 x 5% 30%
12.-ç '~'"",,""'.;.;a,';~:::,,:":" :,~;;:~:':Z::~',:;;:~:';i<, ,;":;":~:C =;,;t.":j;;l'i;.:""t<;~,~@';:cX;;;jt~T~'"~~~.r,~.J~';f,;::rW;, ,;o;ti..~ç~~,:~ ,.,:,.,'P>;V~L;..:'""",,~,, .""'~":- '~"'~';Y"'-" . ~. .,".. .~" .." -,.. ,~~
. Synthesis and Entrepreneurial Planning (SEP)
. Field case study (GW-2)
. Participation
Comment
Students who aIready have an enterprise project love this course. At the end,they say they have matured as entrepreneurs. They have absorbed anentrepreneurial thinking framework. ln fact, the course is designed on thebasis of my own research on entrepreneurial activity systems (FiUon, 1990a,1993). After this course, students are really ready for the start-up course.
1.23.4.5.6.7.8.9-10.11.1213.
Presentation of the courseMeeting with two entrepreneursCommitmentInformation gatheringOpportunity detectionSelf-confidence and tenacityPersuasionIndividual meetings with partici]Defming ambiguous situationsDefining tasks and roles and combining the twoSocial responsibility and ethicsPresentation of field workEach participant presents a competence identi:her project and explains how it will be translatetSaIne as 13Monitoring
14.15.
Deliverv
SaIne as two previous leaming activities (Tables 6 and 7). Exercises are set, to bedo ne individually before each c1ass. Presentation and discussions on the subjectof the day in the c1assroom. Videos and role plays are also used.
20%20%10%
100961UfAL
APPENDIX 4
Entrepreneurial Competencies
tenacity
with participantssituations
identified as relevant to bis ormslated into actionans
13
Exercise 1: G~nera1 Exercise
The first visionary exercise consists in identifying what you believetomorrow's society will be. The best results are obtained by inc1uding details forfields in which you have more knowledge or greater interest.
Describe what society will be like in 10, 20 and 50 years.
How will children be conceived and bom?
What will education be like? What will the teacher's role bel Whatleaming methods will be used, and what will be the goals? What placewill computers occupy? What use will be made of courses given oncomputer screens or television?
4. How will children develop1 How will they live1What will they do1 What will they think1
What type of family will exist, and how will it operate?
What will be the place of the State?
Will what you have or what you are be most important? What will peopleown? What will be the place of religion, ideas and social aspects?
8. What type of work will people do? Will we witness a continuation of thetrend currently seen in the most developed countries, where there aregrowing numbers of smaller work units and self-employed workers7
9. What will be the place of leisure activities?people choose?
10. What methods of transportation will be used?rise, and will public transport continue to grow in popularity?people travel between continents?
What will we eat and how will we eat it? What will we drink?
What will the media be like: television, radio, cinema, newspapers, booksand computer software?
Will the rate of change in society continue to increase, or will it diminishor stay the same? What changes do people have to adjust to during theirlives today? What changes will they have to adjust to ln 10, 20 or 50 years,
d how quickly will the changes occur?
11.
12.
13. What messages will the media convey1programs will be offered1
14.
an
APPENDIX 5
Visionary Exercises
What will they own?
What leisure activities will
Will oil prices continue toHow will
What sort of fIlms and television
14
15. ln what political state will the world find itself?everywhere7 Will there still be wars7
16. ln what ecological state will the world find itself? What natura! resourceswill have been exhausted7
What will be the place of domestic animaIs in people's lives1
What will be the place of computers and robots in people's lives7
Will there still be racial conflict, or will the races be living moreharmoniously1
17.
18.
19.
20. Select a sector of activity and de scribe two possible scenarios fordevelopment. for example, you could choose the sports sector and look athow it will develop, in terms of professional hockey or leisure activities,and the consequences of that development for consumption.
Exercise 2: Persona! life
ln this exercise, you will be asked to select one or two possibilities foryour own personal development in the society of the future. The exercise mightrequire considerable effort on the part of some students, especially those whohave not been used to thinking about the future.
You should first reflect on your present situation and describe it withrespect to each of the questions asked, before going on to identify futurepossibilities. The first six questions are concerned with self-awareness, the nextfour with possessions and the last five with how things will be done.
1. What will 1 be like? What kind of life will 1 be leading in 10, 20 or 50
years?
2 What will my spiritual life be like? What dominant ide as will guide mychoices?
3. What will my social life be like: my family life, my life with my friends?What kind of friends will 1 have?
4. What kind of work will 1 be doing? What place will my work and my otheractivities occupy in my life?
5. What leisure activities will 1 practise? What place will they have in mylife?
6. Will 1 be involved socia1ly or politica1ly7 Will 1 be a passive member ofsociety, or will 1 be contributing to a society that lets me do and achievewhat 1 want7
7. What will my attitude to possessions be7in terms of persona! fulfilment7
8. How will 1 live iD material terms1
Will there be peace
What will it enable me to achieve
IS
9.
10.
11.
What kind of lifestyle will 1 have?
What will my social status bel
How will 1 do things7 What professional activity will 1 be involved in formy personal fulfilment7
What will 1 have as secondary activities - social, sporting or leisureactivities - that will help me achieve personal fulfilment?
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14.
Write down the list of activities that you will have in each sphere of yourlife: family life, professional life, leisure life.
Establish the relative place of each activity (in tenns of number of hoursper week, for example) and the inter-relationship between them. Forexample, if you have a sedentary job such as office work, you will needsome physical activity in the fonn of exercise sessions or a sport, whereasif you have a manual job you will need time to rest. Another example: ifyou travel extensively during the week, you will need more time withyour family and friends on weekends. The aim of this question is toestablish realistic and fairly balanced lifestyles for harmonious self-fulfilment. What you are in fact doing 1s establishing an activity systemthat reflects your planned lifestyle.
15. Where applicable, establish different possibilities in tenns of the relativeimportance of each activity. lDok at the consequences of each scenarioon the relationships between the activity systems.
Exercise 3: Professional Activities
You can now move on to the third exercise, in which you will be asked toidentify one or more possibilities for your future professional life; in otherwords, how you think you will be working and earning a living in your societyof the future. The more you envision and the more you plan on the basis of yourvision, the more likely you are to have control over where you want to go. Asthe old Chinese proverb says, "If you don't think about the future and plan it,and if you don 't change direction, you have a very good chance of ending upwhere you are heading now."
1. What have 1 achieved in the past? Which of these achievements hascontributed Most to my persona! growth?
2 Are there sectors that are related to or separate from what 1 am presentlydoing that 1 think might offer better possibilities for fulfilment orsuccess?
3. What existing opportunities will develop in these sectors (my presentsector and any others identified in question 2) in light of the scenariosenvisaged in Exercise 17
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4. What are my emerging visionsscenarios envisaged in Exercisequestion 2 above7
Which of these emerging visions could develop into a central vision thatwould lead to the creation of an enterprise or to self-employment7 Why7Explain the logic of your answer.
5.
Describe your external central vision, that is, the place on the market youwant to see occupied by your product or service.
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Describe your internal central vision,that is, the type of organization youwill need to build in order to realize your external central vision.
7.
8. What complementary visions, management activities and other elementswill be needed to support the realization of this central vision?
9. What are my entrepreneurial models and what would be the ideal modelfor the entrepreneur 1 want to become? The central vision you want torealize should be coherent with your ideal model, and the same thingapplies to all trades and professions. Given the central vision identified,described and sought, specify the place to be occupied by professionalactivities in the lifestyle described in response to questions 14 and 15 ofExercise 2.
Is there anything obvious that 1 have not thought of and that couldlogically emerge from my capacities or interests? Here, you are invited togo back over the exercises and look carefully for anything that mighthave been forgotten, while thinking of other possibilities.
10.
Content of Edited Interviews with Entrepreneurs as Cases inEntrepreneurship Education: Subjects Covered
Key elements in the entrepreneur's personal history.The circumstances that led the entrepreneur to develop an interest in thefield
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of products or services in light of the1 and the opportunities identified in
APPENDIX 6
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Edited Interviews with Entrepreneurs as Cases in EntrepreneurialEducation: Some Advantages
. The process is structured by the entrepreneur's own progression ratherthan by the precepts of case designers
. The entrepreneur's enthusiasm is reflected in the case and arouses studentinterest in entrepreneurship as a career
Students see how eachbetter able to situatecharacteristics
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Students are often fascinated by how entrepreneurs have used theirdeviances to develop something different. They learn that they can bethemselves and still succeed
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Students see how the entrepreneurs understand their environment andderme their own business context
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Entrepreneurs and potential entrepreneurs often need concrete examples inorder to learn. They know that the cases con tain real-life situations, and thisseems to stimulate their leaming
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The imaginative dimension expressed by entrepreneurs seems to provide apowerful reference point for potential entrepreneurs in terms of how todirect their thought and perception processes.
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APPENDIX 7
entrepreneur's own self-awareness develops and arethemselves in terms of their own entrepreneurial
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