cities and the industrial revolution

21
1 Cities and the industrial revolution

Upload: rhea-oneil

Post on 30-Dec-2015

50 views

Category:

Documents


2 download

DESCRIPTION

Cities and the industrial revolution. I. Trends that underpinned * the industrial revolution  The agricultural revolution: As early as 1650, Holland pioneered * new techniques such as heavy manuring * . New breeding * techniques were also developed. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: Cities and  the industrial revolution

1

Cities and the industrial revolution

Page 2: Cities and  the industrial revolution

2

as early as: dès

to underpin: sous-tendre

trend : tendance

to pioneer: ouvrir la voie

manuring: fumage

breeding: élevage / reproduction

improvement: amélioration

elsewhere: ailleurs

to occur: avoir lieu

plot : parcelle

to restrict: restreindre

increase: augmentation

I. Trends that underpinned* the industrial revolution

The agricultural revolution:

As early as 1650, Holland pioneered* new techniques such as

heavy manuring*. New breeding* techniques were also developed.

These improvements* were soon taken up in England and

elsewhere* in Europe.

Enclosure, which occurred* in the second half of the 18th Century,

was particularly influential in England: large fields were divided

into privately controlled plots* of land. Community access to these

fields was restricted*.

Population growth:

France: 18 million inhabitants in 1715 to 26 million in 1789

Italy: 11 million in 1700 to 16 million in 1770

England: 5 million in 1700 to 9 million in 1800

This increase* in population was accompanied by high levels of

urban to rural migration.

Page 3: Cities and  the industrial revolution

3

goods : biens

to boost: augmenter, renforcer

shift: changement, modification

pattern: motif, structure

factory: usine

outskirt: banlieue, périphérie

railroad: une voie ferrée

toll: un péage

II. Factors that influenced the spatial organisation

of cities

Population growth

An increase in the production of goods*:

This was obviously due to technological progress. But population

growth also contributed to boost* goods production by generating

more demand for different types of goods.

Shifts* in patterns* of employment:

Workers who had traditionally been self-employed in rural areas

moved to cities: their status changed as they often became

employed by large factories*. In England, most of these new

industries were located within the city, not in the outskirts*.

Infrastructure improvement:

- A major expansion of railroads* thanks to the iron industry .

- New roads financed through tolls*: Turnpike roads and trusts.

- Canals

Page 4: Cities and  the industrial revolution

4

iron: acier

to stop (sj.) from (vb+ing): empêcher .. de ..

northwards : vers le nord

planned: aménagé

pride: fierté

city hall / civic centre: mairie

civic centre: mairie

courtroom: tribunal

library: biblothèque

fire engins: camions de pompier

III. The industrial city

Spatial StructureA closer look at Middlesbrough

Middlesbrough’s population rose from 5,000 in 1840 to 75,500

in 1891. Its iron production was exported all over the world.

The river Tees, North of the original city centre, stopped the city

from expanding northwards*. Therefore, a new centre had to be

planned* further South.

A new city hall* (civic centre) was built. In many ways, this new

building was erected to reflect local pride*. The Mayor of

Middlesbrough is reported to have said « we are proud of our

smoke  » (1887).

“One of the striking* features* of the development of many town

centres in the UK during the 20th century was the substantial*

increase in buildings and areas devoted to* municipal

administration and culture: the move from single ‘town halls’ to

entire ‘civic centres’”. (Larkham, 2004)

striking: frappant

feature: caractéristique

substantial: important

devoted to: dédié à

northwards : vers le nord

Page 5: Cities and  the industrial revolution

5

boundary : frontière

around: autour

along: le long de

working class: classe ouvrière

railway: voie ferrée

light / dark : clair / foncé

next to: à côté de

docks: docks (port)

wealthy: aisé

to manage to: parvenir à

to escape: s’échapper

further out: plus loin

Birmingham:The boundary of the built up area in 1828 is shown in red.

Black areas are major industrial concentrations. Housing is found

all around* the factories, in the central area of the city.

Neath:The industrial zone (green) is located along* the river (light blue*).

Working class* housing (dark blue*) is on the other side of the

railway* (red).

Liverpool:Working class housing (green) is located next to* the docks* (blue).

Wealthy* people lived peripheral areas. Some people managed to*

escape* the central areas, but often lived in a “transition area” (red)

until they had enough money to move further out*.

Page 6: Cities and  the industrial revolution

6

overcrowding : surpeuplement

to cram: entasser

accommodation: logement

backyard: arrière-cour

packed: bondé

dead-end: cul-de-sac

foul: immonde

alley: allée

damp: humide

cellar: cave

courts: cour

narrow: étroit

IV. The consequences of urbanisation

The main consequence of urbanisation was overcrowding*.

“In the first half of the 19th century, the answer was all too often

by subdividing existing property and cramming* more

accommodation* into backyards*. Cities became more densely

packed*, creating dead-ends* and foul* alleys*, and damp* cellars*

offered miserable accommodation. In Liverpool, about a quarter

of the population lived in courts* in the early 1840s, and perhaps

ten per cent lived in cellars.” (source)

Back to back housing (uncontrolled)

Page 7: Cities and  the industrial revolution

7

widespread : répandu

oubreak: éruption

link: lien

map: carte

Hygiene Because of overcrowding, hygiene problems became widespread*.

Of particular concern were the regular cholera outbreaks*.

John Snow was the first to identify the link* between water supply

and cholera, as shown below.

Using maps*, Snow found that the number of deaths was highest

around water pumps.

Page 8: Cities and  the industrial revolution

8

a groundbreaking study : une étude

a worrying issue:un problème inquiétant

survey: enquête

to undertake: entreprendre

to lead / led / led: mener

finding: résultat (d’une étude)

Poverty In 1902, Charles Booth published a groundbreaking study*.

Life and Labour of the People of London threw light on a

worrying issue*: over a third of the capital’s population lived in

poverty at that time.

By pioneering survey* techniques, Charles Booth made a major

contribution to social sciences.

Similar studies were undertaken* in other cities, particularly the

one led* by Seebohm Rowntree in York. His findings* were

identical.

Page 9: Cities and  the industrial revolution

9

urban sprawl: l’étalement urbain

network : réseau

underground: (ici) métro

to allow: permettre

to afford: pouvoir se permettre de

obviously: évidemment

developer: promoteur

advert: publicité

Urban sprawl*From the second half of the 19th century, public transport

networks* were improved and extended. The world’s first

underground* opened in London in 1843. This allowed* people

who could afford* new suburban housing to move out of cities.

This trend obviously* encouraged speculation. Developers* used

public transport as an argument in their adverts*.

Page 10: Cities and  the industrial revolution

10

according to: d’après

to pave the way for… : ouvrir la voie à…

growth: croissance

uneven : inégal

to realise: se rendre compte

to act: agir

to reverse: renverser

IV. The Political context

According to* André Maurois, the industrial revolution paved the

way for* a political revolution.

According to many specialists, the 18th and 19th centuries were

characterised by laissez-faire.

In a paper published in 1969, Gordon E. Cherry identified three

factors that contributed to the development of town planning:

(1) the growth* of towns

(2) the concentration of urban problems,

(3) the uneven* development of industry.

Most importantly, he argued that until the early 1830s, the

situation in most towns could be referred to as “municipal

anarchy”.

Despite this, officials realised* they needed to act* in order to

reverse* these trends.

Page 11: Cities and  the industrial revolution

11

to be concerned with: être concerné / interessé par

not so much with…as with… : pas tant par … que par ...

to cater for…: pourvoir aux besoins de…

casualty: victime

Welfare State: Etat Providence

“ Traditional local government bodies were concerned* not so much*

with town improvement and the provision of social amenities* as

with the management of properties and the regulation of privileges.

The inherited system of poor relief had not been designed to cater*

for the casualties* of an industrial urban society, while predominant

philosophy of individualism generated a deep suspicion of

government intervention.” (Gordon E. Cherry)

(Poor relief was the system which provided social security in

England From the 16th Century until the Welfare State* was

established In the early 1940s.)

Page 12: Cities and  the industrial revolution

12

one-way: à sens unique

upon: sur

practice (noun): pratique

to grant: accorder

loosely defined: vaguement défini

law: loi

to apply: appliquer

standard: norme

numerous: de nombreux

a body: (ici) une organisation

to tackle: s’attaquer à (un pbm)

management: gestion

local authority: municipalité

ownership: propriété

“ […] The process of reform is never a one-way* influence of

Ideology upon* practice* or the empirical ‘pressure of facts’ upon

ideology, but a continuous interaction between the two, in which

both are continually modified.” (Perkin, 1977)

“Victorian governments, experimenting in new forms of regulation,

[…] had granted* to officials […] very general and loosely defined*

authorities to make laws* or to judge cases and had permitted

officials to develop and apply* their own standards* and

interpretations of the public interest* […].”

Numerous* ad hoc bodies* were set up in the 19th century to tackle*

specific problems.

During the 19th century, some services (water & electricity) were

‘nationalised’ and their management* was passed onto local

authorities* (municipal ownership*)

Page 13: Cities and  the industrial revolution

13

Victorian (adj.) : de la période Victorienne (1837-1901)

huge: énorme

amount: quantité

century: siècle

famous: célèbre

to focus (on): focaliser

housing: logement

public health: santé publique

V. Early legislation Housing / living conditions in Victorian* cities have generated

a huge* amount* of literature in the past couple of centuries*.

The works of Charles Dickens are probably the most famous*

ones.

In England, the first pieces of legislation dealing with cities

focused* on housing* and public health*.

Step 1:- Entrance should be minimum 5 feet- Yard’s width should be at least 15

feet

Steps 2 and 3:- Yard width: at least 15 feet for 8

houses, at least 25 feet for 18 houses- Yard minimum area: 150 square feet

Step 4:- standards were raised further and included minimum widths for back

lanes

Page 14: Cities and  the industrial revolution

14

New community: a new settlement,a new village or town

industrialist : industriel (nom)

to attempt at: tenter de

to provide: fournir, pourvoir

VI. Utopian experiments

Several industrialists* attempted at* creating successful new

communities* from the late 1800s. Robert Owen was the first

person to implement such a project.

The village he built in New Lanark provided* quality housing for

his workers.

Page 15: Cities and  the industrial revolution

15

to follow: suivre

to feature : (ici) être doté de

wide: large

row: rangée

terrace: rangée de maison(terraced housing)

semi-detached house: maison mitoyenne

whereas: tandis que

neighbourhing: avoisinant

to reach: atteindre

A number of other projects followed*:

Saltaire,

built by Sir Titus Salt

(1851-1876)

Port Sunlight, built by the Lever family.

The plan is influenced by continental projects: it features* wide* boulevards lined with* chestnut trees*.

Houses are built as cottages, in short rows* (terraces*) or as semi-detached*.

Density did not exceed 20 dwellings per hectare whereas* in neighbouring* areas, it could reach* 50 dpa.

Page 16: Cities and  the industrial revolution

16

legacy : héritage

town planner: urbaniste

shorthand writer: sténographe

primarily: principalement

devised: inventé, imaginé

wider: plus large

governance: gouvernance

to take … into account:prendre … en compte

Garden Cities : The legacy* of Ebenezer Howard

Howard is often referred to as a town planner*. In fact, he was a

shorthand writer*.

His book, To-Morrow: a peaceful path to real reform, was originally

Published in 1898. It was then published a second time as Garden

Cities of To-Morrow in 1902.

Today, Garden-cities are primarily* associated with a certain type

of planning, architecture and design.

At the time when they were devised* however, they reflected a

wider* project that also took governance* into account*.

Page 17: Cities and  the industrial revolution

17

to sum up : résumer

magnet: aimant

slum: taudis

fog: brouillard

drought: sécheresse

drainage: assèchement

Howard’s project is summed up* in his famous “three magnets*”

diagram.

Page 18: Cities and  the industrial revolution

18

legacy : héritage

town planner: urbaniste

shorthand writer: sténographe

primarily: principalement

devised: inventé, imaginé

wider: plus large

governance: gouvernance

to take … into account:prendre … en compte

The land used to build the first Garden Cities was purchased* at

agricultural price – in other words, at a very low price.

The whole* city was owned* by the municipality: one of the main

aspects of Garden Cities is that they aimed at* avoiding* the

problems associated with private property.

Residents would pay rents* to the municipality rather than to

private landlords*. The money raised through rents was reinvested

to improve infrastructure and community facilities*.

Page 19: Cities and  the industrial revolution

19

self sufficient: auto-suffisante

balance: équilibre

indefinitely: indéfiniment

According to Howard, the population of Garden Cities should

not exceed 30.000 inhabitants. His project is based on

polycentricity.

His cities are self-sufficient* (they provide a balance* of homes

and jobs) and are connected by public transport. In theory,

Howard’s Social City could grow indefinitely*.

Page 20: Cities and  the industrial revolution

20

skill: compétence

ward: quartier

Howard had no architecture skills*: the plans for his Garden Cities

were drawn by Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker who were both

architects. The diagram below, published in Howard’s book, is

only a “suggested plan” for a ward*.

Page 21: Cities and  the industrial revolution

21

layout: disposition

decrease: réduire

usual: habituel

council housing estate:ensemble de logements sociaux

Raymond Unwin published Nothing gained by overcrowding in

1909.This book proved that it is possible to improve the layout* of

houses without having to decrease* densities. Unwin’s plan (right)

only used 17% of the land for roads instead of* the usual* 40% in

traditional plans (left).

His other main contribution to planning practice was the creation

of the “close”. This model has been widely used since, particularly

in the 1930s when vast council housing estates* were built.