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International Journal of Information Management 33 (2013) 917– 926

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Information Management

j ourna l ho me pa ge: www.elsev ier .com/ locate / i j in fomgt

nformation privacy, gender differences, and intrinsic motivation inhe workplace

iaogang Chen ∗, Jing Ma, Jiafei Jin, Patricia Foshouthwestern University of Finance and Economics, China

r t i c l e i n f o

rticle history:vailable online 30 September 2013

a b s t r a c t

We develop and test a model that examines the relationships between information privacy, gender dif-ferences, and intrinsic motivation. Information privacy can be defined as perceived control of information

eywords:nformation privacyntrinsic motivationender differencesoderated mediation

gathering (i.e., PCIG) and perceived control of information handling (i.e., PCIH). We surveyed 320 Chi-nese employees from various organizations and found that both PCIG and PCIH had positive effects uponintrinsic motivation. We found, however, that the impact of PCIG was completely mediated by PCIH andthat the mediation process produced a stronger effect on intrinsic motivation for male employees thanfor female employees. In addition, the positive relationship between PCIG and PCIH was stronger forfemale employees than for male employees.

. Introduction

Information privacy, the state of limited access to informationbout oneself (Smith, Dinev, & Xu, 2011), has become a salientssue in the workplace due to certain organizational practiceshreatening employees’ rights to information privacy (Connolly

McParland, 2012). Among such practices are drug tests, back-round checks, personality inventories, lie detection, telephoneonitoring, and workplace surveillance (Kayas, Mclean, Hines, &right, 2008; Stone-Romero, Stone, & Hyatt, 2003). As information

echnologies advances expand the capacity and extend the abilityf organizations to gather, store, and process information aboutmployees (D’Urso, 2006), employees’ concerns about informationrivacy are increasing.

While employers have generally paid attention to the ethi-al and legal implications of information privacy (e.g., Park &warich, 2008; Thornley, Ferguson, Weckert, & Gibb, 2011; Weiss,009), nevertheless, a small stream of research has developedhowing that information privacy has substantive impacts onork-related perceptions and behaviors, such as organizational

airness (Ashworth & Free, 2006), psychological empowerment andrganizational citizenship behaviors (Alge, Ballinger, Tangirala, &akley, 2006), and job satisfaction (Smith & Tabak, 2009).

Theorists of privacy argue, however, that information privacy

erves a number of psychological and behavioral functions, such asersonal autonomy, self-identity, and limited and protected com-unication (Altman, 1976; Westin, 2003) that have implications

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +0086 2887092184.E-mail address: chenxg@swufe.edu.cn (X. Chen).

268-4012/$ – see front matter © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.ttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2013.08.010

© 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

for human resource management. As these functions of informa-tion privacy have not been fully explored (Alge et al., 2006), weattempt in our paper to fill part of this research gap by investigatingthe relationships between information privacy and intrinsic moti-vation in the workplace. The central element of information privacyis the control of personal information (Altman, 1976; Westin, 2003).Hence, two aspects of information control are specifically con-sidered in this study: perceived control of information gathering(PCIG) and perceived control of information handling (PCIH) (Algeet al., 2006). Intrinsic motivation is defined as an “inherent ten-dency to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and exerciseone’s capacities, to explore, and to learn” (Ryan & Deci, 2000,p. 70).

We choose to focus on the relationships between these con-structs as there are plausible theoretical connections betweenthem: PCIG and PCIH help develop the sense of personal auton-omy (Pedersen, 1997; Rothstein, 2010) and fulfilling the needfor autonomy is essential for intrinsic motivation (Niemiec, Ryan,& Deci, 2010). Thus, PCIG and PCIH are likely to be positivelyassociated with intrinsic motivation. We also propose that gen-der differences moderate the relationships between informationprivacy perceptions and intrinsic motivation. Past studies consis-tently show that gender differences have important implicationsfor workplace issues (e.g., Gneezy, Niederle, & Rustichini, 2003;Purvanova & Muros, 2010; Ramamoorthy & Flood, 2004). Researchon information privacy has, so far, largely ignored the effect ofgender (Adam, Howcroft, & Richardson, 2002).

The rest of our paper is organized as follows. First, we discussthe theoretical background and develop the hypotheses. Then,we describe the research methodology and present the results.Finally, we discuss the theoretical and pragmatic implications of

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18 X. Chen et al. / International Journal of I

he findings, assess the limitations of our research, and suggestuture research directions.

. Theoretical background and hypotheses development

.1. Intrinsic motivation

According to self-determination theory (Niemiec et al., 2010),eople have an innate tendency to pursue newness and challenges,o exercise and augment their capacities, and to explore and learn.yan and Deci (2000) termed such a tendency intrinsic motiva-ion. An intrinsically motivated person engages in a task solelyn account of the interest, fun, and enjoyment embedded in theask. Thus, the affective experiences of joy, excitement, and plea-ure are ingrained in intrinsically motivated behaviors. Researchersave long recognized this point. For example, Harackiewicz (1979)eported that enjoyment is associated with behavioral measuresf intrinsic motivation. Reeve and Olson (1986) reported that theajority of study participants attach the emotion of excitement to

ntrinsically motivated activities. Guay, Vallerand, and Blanchard2000) combined the ratings of interest, pleasure, fun, and enjoy-

ent to measure level of intrinsic motivation.Intrinsic motivation is a valuable construct to study in the

orkplace because it exerts significant influences on various on-he-job behaviors. Alge et al. (2006) reported that employees’ntrinsic motivation is positively associated with their behaviorsf organizational citizenship. Zapata-Phelan, Colquitt, Scott, andivingston (2009) reported that employees’ intrinsic motivationartially mediates the relationship between their perceptions ofrocedural justice and task performance. Joo, Jeung, and Yoon2010) reported that intrinsic motivation fully mediates the rela-ionship between job autonomy and job performance. Zhang andartol (2010) reported that intrinsic motivation is positively relatedo employee creativity.

The theory of self-determination argues that three innate psy-hological needs are important for self-motivated behaviors: needor competence, personal autonomy, and relatedness (Ryan & Deci,000). Most research on the causes of self-determination has con-entrated on need for personal autonomy. Chirkov, Sheldon, andyan (2011) interpreted personal autonomy as psychological free-om, referring to a person’s capacity to take a hand in her or his ownevelopment (May, 1973). People experience psychological free-om if they are self-governed by rational reasoning and reflectivehinking when making choices amongst several courses of actionGuay et al., 2000). In contrast, people experience psychologicalonstraints if their actions are impelled by external demands (Uyl,003).

.2. Information privacy in the workplace

Information privacy is particularly concerned with the control ofersonal information (i.e., personal identifiable information, suchs name, ethnicity, and employment history (Lah, 2008)) and cane defined as the state of limited access to information about theelf (Smith et al., 2011). This definition has the theoretical rootsn Westin’s (2003) and Altman’s (1976) privacy theories. Westin2003) introduced privacy as a psychological state or condition inhich individuals are able to decide when, what, and how infor-ation about themselves is communicated to others. On the other

and, Altman (1976, p. 8) conceptualized privacy as a boundary

ontrol process; that is, opening up and closing off the boundaryetween the self and its social surrounding in order to achievethe selective control of access to the self”’. Thus, the essence ofnformation privacy is information control.

ation Management 33 (2013) 917– 926

Alge et al. (2006) considered that two aspects of informationcontrol are of importance for employees in the workplace: PCIG andPCIH. PCIG refers to employees’ perceptions of control over whatinformation about them is gathered and stored by their employ-ing organizations. Employees develop these perceptions when theorganizations collect personal information from them. The very actof information gathering can lead to various concerns (Malhotra,Kim, & Agarwal, 2004), such as too much information collection(Smith, 1994) and irrelevant information collection (Nissenbaum,2004). To countervail such concerns, employees need control ininformation gathering. The organizational information practices,such as providing legitimate reasons and obtaining employees’ per-mission for information collection (Stone-Romero & Stone, 1990),can satisfy this need. PCIH, on the other hand, refers to employees’perceptions of control over the usage and dissemination of gath-ered information. Such perceptions form when employees see howthe organizations handle the information (Alge et al., 2006). Theconcerns tend to rise if the organizations use the information forpurposes beyond the initial agreement (Ashworth & Free, 2006), donot provide sufficient access protections (Smith, 1994), or releasethe information to third parties (Sheehan & Hoy, 2000). Therefore,employees also demand control in information handling.

Alge et al. (2006) also proposed that perceived legitimacy ofinformation practices is another aspect of information privacy.They argued that employees develop expectations on which infor-mation gathering and handling practices are legitimate ones. Whenthe organization’s information practices violate their expectations,employees perceive their information privacy to be invaded. We donot, however, consider this aspect of information privacy for threereasons: First, this aspect is not consistent with prevailing defi-nitions of information privacy that emphasize the importance ofinformation control (e.g., Altman, 1976; Smith et al., 2011; Westin,2003). Second, Alge et al.’s study (2006) shows the loading ofperceived legitimacy on information privacy (i.e., 0.49) is far lessthan the loadings of PCIG and PCIH (i.e., 0.87 and 0.91, respec-tively), implying that perceived legitimacy and PCIG, together withPCIH, do not belong to the same theoretical category. Third, whenemployees have information control, illegitimate information prac-tices will not take place because employees are able to restrainillegitimate information gathering and handling.

Alge et al. (2006) modeled information privacy as a second-orderconstruct and treated PCIG and PCIH as its dimensions. While theseauthors empirically established the general link between infor-mation privacy and psychological empowerment, their study didnot provide fine-grained information on the outcome effects foreach dimension of information privacy. In order to complementtheir study, we choose to model PCIG and PCIH as two separatefirst-order constructs and to study their relationships with intrin-sic motivation in job activities. Our approach unpacks the effects ofinformation privacy by closely examining which information pri-vacy dimension contributes to intrinsic motivation and how eachdoes so.

2.2.1. Relationships between PCIG, PCIH, and intrinsic motivationWestin (1970) suggested that information privacy has four

psychological and behavioral functions: personal autonomy,emotional release, self-evaluation, and limited and protected com-munication. Empirical research provides strong support for theimportance of the first of these. Pedersen (1997) showed thatinformation privacy, in the form of solitude and isolation, allowsindividuals to try out new behaviors without fear of social reprisal,

including breaking some social norms, experiencing failure, anddoing things that do not fit their usual roles. Cole and Hall (2010)also found experiences of solitude and isolation to be related to thesense of personal freedom and independence. Thus, people who

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2.4. Control variables

Age, job tenure, monthly income, and education level areincluded in this study as control variables. We choose these control

X. Chen et al. / International Journal of I

ave control over their personal information are likely to experi-nce an increased sense of personal autonomy.

Self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000) posits that per-onal autonomy is an innate psychological need. A number ofmpirical studies have confirmed that satisfaction of this needs essential for initiating and sustaining intrinsic motivation. Forxample, Gagné, Senécal, and Koestner (1997) found that work-ng in an autonomy-supportive context appears to facilitate theevelopment of intrinsic motivation. Zhang and Bartol (2010) foundhat the freedom to choose how to initiate and carry out tasksn the workplace is positively associated with intrinsic motiva-ion. Joo et al. (2010) found that employees with autonomousobs, compared to those with regulated jobs, have higher levels ofntrinsic motivation. As satisfying the need for personal autonomys essential for initiating and sustaining intrinsic motivation, ands maintaining information privacy facilitates the development ofersonal autonomy, we argue that it is reasonable to expect infor-ation privacy perceptions to affect intrinsic motivation. We set

ut Hypotheses 1a and 1b.

1a. Employees’ PCIG has a positive effect on their intrinsic moti-ation in job activities.

1b. Employees’ PCIH has a positive effect on their intrinsic moti-ation in job activities.

.2.2. The relationship between PCIG and PCIHWe suggest that PCIG is positively associated with PCIH. Infor-

ation gathering and handling are separated in time (Hann, Hui,ee, & Png, 2002). Specifically, information gathering precedesnformation handling, as information first needs to be gatheredefore it can be handled for various purposes (Malhotra et al., 2004).mployees with a high level of information gathering control canimit the quantity of information collected about them and can alsonsure that the information collected is job-relevant (Ashworth &ree, 2006). To be able to do this enhances employees’ PCIH as it iselatively easy to control the use of such limited information. Onhe other hand, when employees have no information gatheringontrol, the organizations may collect and store a large amount ofensitive information about employees. As this information is largend of a sensitive nature, it is difficult for employees to controlts use (Gounaris & Theodoulidis, 2003). Consequently, employees’CIH is reduced. We set out Hypothesis 2.

2. Employees’ PCIG is positively related to their PCIH.

.2.3. The mediating role of PCIHBased on H1a, H1b and H2, we suggest that the effect of PCIG

n intrinsic motivation is fully mediated by PCIH; that is, PCIGs associated with intrinsic motivation only through PCIH. Therganizations collect information about employees because suchnformation can be used for purposes of human resource manage-

ent, such as promotion decision, performance evaluation, andraining arrangement (Woodman et al., 1982). Hence, the employ-es care about information gathering since there are consequencesor them when gathered information is used. As Stone-Romero andtone pointed out (1990), about information gathering, the mainoncern of employees is for what purposes their information wille used. If the information to be gathered bears no or little rel-vance to the stated purposes, they may become worried. Thismplies that the employees pay attention to information gatheringot because information gathering itself but because of the possi-

le consequences produced by using the gathered information. Weet out Hypothesis 3.

3. The effect of PCIG on intrinsic motivation is fully mediated byCIH.

ation Management 33 (2013) 917– 926 919

2.3. Gender differences

Despite the considerable importance attached to gender dif-ferences (Wilson, 2004), they have generally been ignored in theinformation privacy domain (Adam et al., 2002). To our knowledgethere is no empirical study that directly addresses gender issuesin the study of information privacy in the workplace. To remedythis, we include in our study investigation of the moderating effectof gender differences on the relationships between informationprivacy perceptions and intrinsic motivation. We expect genderdifferences to impact upon the importance that female and maleemployees place on information privacy; that is, female and maleemployees may evaluate the importance of information privacydifferently.

A stream of research consistently reports gender differences invalue priorities (e.g., Feather, 2004; Lyons, Duxbury, & Higgins,2005). Values commonly refer to enduring beliefs that serve asthe normative criteria used to make evaluations of specific actionsor objects (Rokeach, 1973). In the context of information privacy,two values are particularly relevant: power and self-direction.Power is concerned with control or dominance over resources(Schwartz et al., 2001). Hence, this value may impact how impor-tant an individual evaluates information control, the central themeof information privacy. Self-direction is concerned with indepen-dent thought and action-choosing (Schwartz et al., 2001). Thus,this value may impact how important an individual evaluates theautonomy, one of major functions of information privacy. Findingsfrom 77,528 participants in 70 countries reveal that men consis-tently attribute more importance to power and self-direction thanwomen (Schwartz & Rubel, 2005). Therefore, it is reasonable toexpect that male employees are more likely to put more weight oninformation privacy than female employees. We set out Hypotheses4a and 4b.

H4a. The positive relationship between PCIG and intrinsic moti-vation is weaker for female employees than for male employees.

H4b. The positive relationship between PCIH and intrinsic moti-vation is weaker for female employees than for male employees.

As we discussed for H2, information gathering control helpsrestrain the quantity and content of information collection, therebyenhancing information handling control. However, even if thelimited information is collected, the risks of information misusestill exist, such as unauthorized secondary use and improper access(Ashworth & Free, 2006). Because men value information controlmore than women, they pay more attention to information gath-ering and handling practices and are more likely to realize thatinformation gathering control only partially reduces the risks ofinformation misuse. Thus, the positive association between PCIGand PCIH is likely to be weaker for male employees than for femaleemployees. We set out Hypothesis 4c.

H4c. The positive relationship between PCIG and PCIH is weakerfor male employees than for female employees.

variables on the ground that intrinsic motivation in job activitiesmay change with age, job tenure, income level, and education level(Wong, Siu, & Tsang, 1999). Fig. 1 summarizes the hypotheses wedevelop in our study.

920 X. Chen et al. / International Journal of Information Management 33 (2013) 917– 926

Fig. 1. Research model.

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. Method

.1. Data collection

We collected data by using a web-based survey. The survey wasargely composed of three sections: The first section stated thathe survey was conducted for an academic research regarding jobttitudes and we would keep the information collected confiden-ial. The second section included eight questions of informationrivacy perceptions and four questions of intrinsic motivation. Thehird section asked for demographic information, such as gender,ge, and job tenure.

The survey was hosted and distributed by Sojump (http://www.ojump.com), a Chinese website providing online survey services.ojump sends email invitations to its registered members invitinghem to complete a questionnaire. If members respond to the invi-ation and complete the surveys, Sojump charges customers 2–96hinese yuans (One USA dollar ≈ 6.2 Chinese yuans) per response,epending on the complexity of the surveys. Currently, Sojumpas about 2.6 million members throughout China. Approximately,2 percent of their members are full-time employees drawn fromarious job categories, such as office secretary, technician, andepartment manager. We employed Sojump to select randomly000 members with full-time job experience from their pool ofegistered members and then to send email invitations to them toomplete our questionnaire.

Sojump’s records indicated that that 787 members with uniqueP addresses responded to our survey. As 467 of those responding,owever, went below the 5-min time baseline (this time baselineet up through pretest) or provided incomplete and/or contradic-ory answers, our final sample consisted of 320 responses. Table 1ets out our sample’s demographic characteristics. To determinehether non-response bias was an issue, we compared early with

ate respondents (Plouffe, Hulland, & Vandenbosch, 2001). Analy-is of variance tests did not show significant differences in any ofur measures (F = 0.01, p = 0.94 for PCIG, F = 0.06, p = 0.80 for PCIH,

= 0.453, p = 0.50 for intrinsic motivation).

3.2. Measures

This study involved four major variables: PCIG, PCIH, intrinsicmotivation, and gender. In addition, we had four control variables:age, job tenure, monthly income, and education level. We measuredPCIG and PCIH using items developed by Alge et al. (2006). Intrin-sic motivation was measured using four items developed by Guayet al. (2000). Table 2 sets out our measurement items. For each item,respondents assessed the extent of their agreement/disagreementusing a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5(“strongly agree”). We also asked respondents for details of theirgender, age, job tenure, monthly income, and education level. Thefirst and third authors, working together, translated all question-naire items from English into Chinese. The second author translatedthe Chinese items back into English ones and then compared themwith the original English version. We discussed any inconsistenciesuntil the authors reached agreement.

3.3. Analytical techniques

We chose to use partial least square (PLS) as the statisticalmethod for analyzing our data. Unlike covariance-based structuralequation modeling (SEM) (e.g., AMOS and LISREL), component-based PLS estimates model parameters by minimizing the residualvariances of dependent variables (Lohmöller, 1984, 1989). PLS doesnot suffer from the inadmissible solutions and factor indeterminacyissues, unlike covariance-based SEM (Chin, 1998). In addition, PLSmakes minimal assumptions on measurement scales, sample size,and residual distributions (Chin, 1998; Wold, 1985).

4. Analysis and results

4.1. Measurement validation

We examined the reliability, the convergent validity, and thediscriminant validity of the PLS measurement model. The reliabil-ity was assessed based on composite reliability (CR) and Cronbach’s

X. Chen et al. / International Journal of Information Management 33 (2013) 917– 926 921

Table 1Demographics.

Measure Item Codea Frequency Percent

Gender Male 1 165 52Female 2 155 48

Age ≤20 (years old) 1 4 121–30 2 221 6931–40 3 72 2341–50 4 19 651–60 5 4 1

Job tenure <1 (year) 1 6 21–5 2 229 726–10 3 48 15>10 4 37 12

Monthly income <2000 (yuans) 1 27 82000–5000 2 208 655001–10,000 3 70 2210,001–30,000 4 14 4>30,000 5 1 0

Education level High school or less 1 15 5Associate degree 2 59 18Bachelor degree 3 207 65Master degree 4 36 11Ph.D. 5 3 1

a This column sets out the coded values used in the data analysis for these variables.

Table 2Measurement items.

Variable Item and abbreviation

Perceived control of information gathering (PCIG) PCIG1 – I am able to keep my organization from collecting personal information about me that Iwould like to keep secret.PCIG2 – I determine the types of information that my organization can store about me.PCIG3 – I am completely satisfied that I am able to keep my organization from collecting personalinformation about me that I want to keep from them.PCIG4 – I am satisfied in my ability to control the types of personal information that myorganization collects on me.

Perceived control of information handling (PCIH) PCIH1 – My organization always seeks my approval concerning how it uses my personalinformation.PCIH2 – My organization respects my right to control who can see my personal information.PCIH3 – My organization allows me to decide how my personal information can be released toothers.PCIH4 – I control how my personal information is used by my organization.

Intrinsic motivation (IM) IM1 – I think that my job tasks are fun.IM2 – I think that my job tasks are pleasant.IM3 – I feel good when doing my job tasks.

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ource. Developed from Alge et al. (2006) and Guay et al. (2000).

lpha (CA). As shown in Table 3, the CRs ranged from 0.91 to.94, and the CAs ranged from 0.91 to 0.94, which were all abovehe recommended levels. The convergent validity was establishedecause the average variance extracted (AVE) of each scale (shown

n Table 3) was greater than 0.50 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). The dis-riminant validity was assessed by the loadings and cross-loadingsf the survey items: (1) the items should load highly (i.e., greaterhan 0.71) on their intended constructs (Chin, 1998), and (2) the

aps between the loadings and cross-loadings should be greaterhan 0.2 (Nunnally, 1978). Table 4 shows that the loadings and theaps are all above the satisfactory levels. The evidence of discrim-nant validity was also obtained by evaluating the square roots of

able 3escriptive statistics.

Mean Standarddeviation

Comreli

IM 3.78 0.76 0.94PCIG 3.37 0.86 0.91PCIH 3.18 0.88 0.91

my job tasks are interesting.

AVEs. Table 5 shows that each latent variable’s square root of AVE(i.e., values on the diagonal) is greater than correlations betweenlatent variables (Chin, 1998).

4.2. Common method variance

As we collected our data from the single set of respondents, therewas a potential problem of common method variance (Podsakoff,

MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). To test the presence of com-mon method variance, we conducted Harman’s single-factor testby performing an exploratory factor analysis for all our measure-ment items. Two factors with eigenvalues of over 1.0 emerged, with

positeability

Cronbach’salpha

Average varianceexplained

0.94 0.79 0.91 0.73 0.91 0.73

922 X. Chen et al. / International Journal of Inform

Table 4Loadings and cross-loadings.

IM PCG PCH

IM1 0.853 0.216 0.306IM2 0.908 0.223 0.311IM3 0.914 0.269 0.355IM4 0.876 0.262 0.318PCG1 0.172 0.765 0.491PCG2 0.267 0.860 0.615PCG3 0.246 0.890 0.578PCG4 0.240 0.893 0.601PCH1 0.291 0.534 0.848PCH2 0.337 0.549 0.876PCH3 0.330 0.614 0.862

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he bold values are the square root of AVEs.

he first factor accounting for 46.82 percent of the total variance.urther, we added a common method factor in the PLS model. Thendicators of the common method factor comprised all the mea-urement items (Podsakoff et al., 2003; Saraf, Langdon, & Gosain,007; Williams, Edwards, & Vendenberg, 2003). The results (seeable 6) reveal that substantive factor loadings are far greater thanethod factor loadings and that the method factor contributes very

ittle to the indicators’ variances (Lu & Yang, 2011). Thus, we con-luded that common method variance was not a serious concernor our data.

.3. Hypothesis testing

We tested our hypotheses by examining the path coeffi-ients for the PLS structural model. H1a proposes a positiveelationship between PCIG and intrinsic motivation. Fig. 2 revealshe results. The corresponding path coefficient is positive and

able 5orrelations.

IM PCIG PCIH

IM 0.89a

PCIG 0.27 0.85a

PCIH 0.36 0.67 0.85a

Gender 0.02 −0.03 0.03

Age −0.08 −0.02 −0.03

Tenure −0.02 0.02 0.02

Income 0.15 0.08 0.07

Education 0.10 −0.07 −0.11

a Values on the diagonal are the square-root of average variance explained.

able 6actor loadings.

Construct Indicators Substantive factor loading (R1)

PCIG PICG1 0.85**

PICG2 0.76**

PICG3 0.91**

PICG4 0.90**

PCIH PCIH1 0.96**

PCIH2 0.94**

PCIH3 0.75**

PCIH4 0.75**

IM IM1 0.87**

IM2 0.93**

IM3 0.88**

IM4 0.87**

Control variables Income 1.00

Education 1.00

Age 1.00

Tenure 1.00

** p < 0.01.

ation Management 33 (2013) 917– 926

statistically significant ( ̌ = 0.27, t = 4.92, p < 0.01), and thus H1ais supported. H1b proposes a positive relationship between PCIHand intrinsic motivation. Fig. 3 reveals the results. The corre-sponding path coefficient is positive and statistically significant( ̌ = 0.34, t = 4.16, p < 0.01), and thus H1b is supported. H2 proposesa positive relationship between PCIG and PCIH. Fig. 3 sets outour results. The corresponding path coefficient is positive andstatistically significant ( ̌ = 0.67, t = 20.54, p < 0.01), and thus H2 issupported.

H3 proposes that the effect of PCIG on intrinsic motivation iscompletely mediated by PCIH. To test this, we followed Baron andKenny’s (1986) steps. First, as the results of H2 testing reveal, therelationship between PCIG and PCIH is positive and statistically sig-nificant. Second, as the results of H1a testing reveal, the relationshipbetween PCIG and intrinsic motivation is positive and statisticallysignificant. Third, we examined the PLS structural model includ-ing PCIG, PCIH, and intrinsic motivation (see Fig. 3). The resultsindicate that, while the relationship between PCIH and intrinsicmotivation is positive and statistically significant ( ̌ = 0.34, t = 4.16,p < 0.01), the path coefficient between PCIG and intrinsic motiva-tion changed, however, from 0.27 (t = 4.92, p < 0.01) to 0.05 (t = 0.66,p > 0.05). Based on the above results, we conclude that the effect ofPCIG on intrinsic motivation completely mediates by PCIH. Thus,H3 is supported.

H4a and H4b, together, propose that gender moderates the rela-tionships between information privacy perceptions and intrinsicmotivation. In addition, H4c proposes that gender moderates therelationship between PCIG and PCIH. As gender is a categorical vari-able, we adopted the multi-group PLS analysis suggested by Chin

and Dibbern (2010) and Henseler (2012) to test these hypotheses.First, we employed the Box’s M test to check whether measure-ment invariance holds across the subsets (Carte & Russell, 2003).Table 7 demonstrates that inter-item covariance matrices within all

Gender Age Tenure Income

–−0.14 –−0.14 0.63 –−0.16 0.17 0.20 –−0.06 0.05 0.07 0.38

R12 Method factor loading (R2) R22

0.73 −0.09 0.010.58 0.11 0.010.83 −0.02 0.000.81 −0.01 0.00

0.92 −0.12 0.010.88 −0.07 0.000.56 0.12 0.010.56 0.07 0.00

0.76 −0.02 0.000.86 −0.03 0.000.77 0.04 0.000.76 0.01 0.00

1.00 0.00 0.001.00 0.00 0.001.00 0.00 0.001.00 0.00 0.00

X. Chen et al. / International Journal of Information Management 33 (2013) 917– 926 923

Fig. 2. Test results for the partial model.

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Fig. 3. Test resu

he variables are equal across the subsets. Therefore, measurement

nvariance holds across the subsets. Second, we estimated the PLStructural model for each subset. The second and third columns ofable 8 show the coefficients for PCIG-IM, PCIH-IM, and PCIG-PCIHaths and their significant levels. Third, we subjected each subset

able 7ox’s M tests.

Box’s M F

IM 13.09 1.29PCIG 7.51 0.74

PCIH 10.24 1.01

able 8esults of moderating impact of gender differences.

Path Coefficients

Female (ˇ1) Male (ˇ2)

PCIG→IM 0.29** 0.26**

PCIH→IM 0.19 0.42**

PCIG→PCIH 0.77** 0.58**

** p < 0.01.

the full model.

to a bootstrap analysis with 500 bootstrap samples. We compared

each path coefficient estimate of the female group with the corre-sponding estimate of the male group. The number of positive andzero differences divided by the total number of comparisons (i.e.,250,000) indicates how probable it is in the population that the

df1 df2 Sig. (p-value)

10 47,170.2 0.230.690.43

Hypotheses Probability

H4a: ˇ1 < ˇ2 Prob.(ˇ1 ≥ ˇ2) = 64.29%H4b: ˇ1 < ˇ2 Prob.(ˇ1 ≥ ˇ2) = 1.89%H4c: ˇ1 > ˇ2 Prob.(ˇ1 > ˇ2) = 99.51%

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24 X. Chen et al. / International Journal of I

ath coefficient of the female group is greater than or equal to thatf the male group (Henseler, 2012).

As shown in the last column of Table 8, there is about 64.29ercent probability, among 250,000 comparisons, that the PCIG-

M path coefficient of females is greater than or equal to that ofales. In other words, the probability that the PCIG-IM path coef-

cient of females is less than that of males is 35.71 percent (<95ercent). Thus, H4a is not supported. There is about 1.89 percentrobability, among 250,000 comparisons, that the PCIH-IM pathoefficient of females is greater than or equal to that of males.n other words, the probability that the PCIH-IM path coefficientf females is less than that of males is 98.11 percent (>95 per-ent). Thus, H4b is supported. There is 99.51 percent (>95 percent)robability, among 250,000 comparisons, that the PCIG-PCIH pathoefficient of females is greater than that of males. Thus, H4c isupported. In sum, our results reveal that the positive relationshipetween PCIG and PCIH is weaker for male employees than it is foremale employees. In addition, the positive relationship betweenCIH and intrinsic motivation is stronger for male employees thant is for female employees. There is no difference, however, in thetrength of the relationship between PCIG and intrinsic motivationetween male and female employees.

. Discussion

We aimed in our study to examine the nature of the relationshipsetween information privacy perceptions and intrinsic motiva-ion in job activities. We also aimed to investigate the moderatingmpact of gender differences on the relationships. As is clear above,ur hypotheses received considerably empirical support. Our find-ngs contribute to research on information privacy in the workplacen three ways.

First, previous research (e.g., Alge et al., 2006; Stewart & Segars,002) typically modeled information privacy as a second-orderonstruct. Although such a model has the advantage of parsimo-iousness (Stewart & Segars, 2002), it does not provide informationn the outcome effects of different information privacy facets.o complement this, we model PCIG and PCIH as two separaterst-order constructs and examine their impacts on intrinsic moti-ation in the workplace. The results show that the nature of theelationships between the two facets of information privacy andntrinsic motivation are very different. Specifically, PCIH has a pos-tive impact on intrinsic motivation (i.e., H1b) while, although PCIGlso has a positive impact on intrinsic motivation (i.e., H1a), thismpact is fully mediated through PCIH (i.e., H3).

Secondly, our study also fills part of the research gap for gen-er differences in information privacy. Muller, Judd, and Yzerbyt2005) suggested that a moderated mediation is established whenhe magnitude of the overall impact of an independent variablen a dependent variable does not depend on a moderator, but theotency of any mediating process between the independent andependent variables depends on the moderator. In our study, theest results show that gender does not moderate the overall effect ofCIG on intrinsic motivation (i.e., H4a). Rather, gender moderateshe relationship between PCIG and PCIH (i.e., H4c) and the rela-ionship between PCIH and intrinsic motivation (i.e., H4b). Theseelationships constitute the mediating process that produces theffect of PCIG on intrinsic motivation. Thus, a moderated mediationelationship is established among PCIG, PCIH, intrinsic motivation,nd gender differences. That is, the mediating process from PCIGo PCIH to intrinsic motivation is different between female and

ale employees. Specifically, the mediating process produces atronger effect on intrinsic motivation for male employees than foremale employees (i.e., 0.58 × 0.42 > 0.77 × 0.19). H4a is not sup-orted because the moderating effect of gender on the relationship

ation Management 33 (2013) 917– 926

between PCIG and intrinsic motivation is manifested in the medi-ating process.

Thirdly and finally, we point out that our hypotheses, derivedfrom Western theories, are supported for Chinese employees.Although previous research has demonstrated that the conceptu-alization of information privacy is valid and salient across cultures(Milberg, Burke, Smith, & Kallman, 1995; Milberg, Smith, & Burke,2000), there has been, to our knowledge, no prior empiricalstudy examining the relationships among information privacy, gen-der differences, and intrinsic motivation in the Chinese culturalcontext. Our findings show the validity and importance of thephenomenon of information privacy in Chinese organizations, andcontribute significantly to cross-cultural research on informationprivacy.

5.1. Implications for practice

Our findings have important managerial implications fororganizational practices for collecting and handling employees’information. Given the significant role of intrinsic motivation inthe workplace and the association between information privacyand intrinsic motivation, managers need to balance organizationalneeds for employees’ information in human resource planningagainst employees’ needs for controlling their own information.Managers can employ practices, such as advance notice of infor-mation gathering, authorization of information disclosure, andinvolvement of employees in the design phase of organizationalinformation policies, in order to enhance employees’ sense of con-trol (Bies, 1993). Further, since PCIG is positively related to PCIH,and PCIH mediates the relationship between PCIG and intrinsicmotivation, managers should be aware that improving informa-tion gathering or handling practices alone would not result in thedesired impact on intrinsic motivation. Instead, both phases ofinformation practices need improving jointly.

Our study finds gender difference in the mediating processfrom PCIG to PCIH to intrinsic motivation. Specifically, the medi-ation results in a weaker impact on intrinsic motivation for femaleemployees than for male employees. This may be due to the rea-son that female employees value information control less thanmale employees do. Therefore, there is a need for setting up atraining program for female employees. The program can educatethem about possible negative consequences caused by informa-tion abusing and thus can improve their understanding about theimportance of information control. In addition, the program shouldemphasize what measures the organizations have employed in theinformation gathering and handling phases to strengthen employ-ees’ control of personal information. This will raise the awarenessof information control.

5.2. Limitations and future research directions

As with all empirical studies, our study has limitations. First,our study respondents are self-selected. This may be a source ofpotential biases. For example, employees, who do not have strongopinions about information privacy in the workplace, may havechosen not to answer our questionnaire. Thus, it remains to be seenwhether or not the results of this study can be replicated in othergroups of employees.

Second, our study defines information privacy from the per-spective of information control. Other researchers, however, arguethat information privacy should also be conceptualized fromthe perspective of organizational justice (Eddy, Stone-Romero, &

Stone, 1999; Zweig & Webster, 2002). These researchers makethis argument on the ground that employees have moral andethical expectations for organizational procedures of gatheringand handling personal information (Bies, 1993), such as proper

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uthorization of information release and relevancy of informationequesting (Nissenbaum, 2004; Stone & Kotch, 1989; Tolchinskyt al., 1981). If organizations violate such expectations, employeeseel that their privacy is invaded (Stone-Romero et al., 2003) andhat such invasion of their privacy is unfair (Leventhal, 1980). Whenndividuals feel that they are treated unfairly, they develop negativemotions (e.g., anger and resentment). Since positive emotion is arincipal element of intrinsic motivation (see Deci & Ryan, 1985;eo, Barrett, & Bartunek, 2004), future research needs to examinehe relationships between information privacy and intrinsic moti-ation through the lens of organizational justice, thereby gainingdditional theoretical understanding.

Third, our study operationalizes gender as a categorical variablend groups study participants into one of two gender categories.iterature on the social construction of gender (Koenig, Eagly,ichell, & Ristikari, 2011), however, suggests that such a dichotomyay be oversimplified. This is because even within the same

ender category, individuals vary in the degree to which theirsychological and behavioral characteristics are congruent withhe ones commonly ascribed to their corresponding gender types.hinar (1975) proposes a masculinity-femininity scale that allowsesearchers to measure such variation among individuals. Thiseasurement may produce more fine-grained results on the mod-

rating effects of gender on the relationships between informationrivacy and intrinsic motivation. We suggest future research adoptshis measurement of gender.

Lastly, our study examines four control variables: age, monthlyncome, job tenure, and education level. Other control variables

ay be worthy of investigating, such as previous experience ofrivacy invasion, job position, and industry type.

. Conclusion

As proposed in the introduction, the purpose of this study waso examine the relationships between employees’ perceptions ofnformation privacy and their intrinsic motivation in job activities.urthermore, we suggested the moderating effects of gender onuch relationships. Overall, the findings indicated that both PCIGnd PCIH had positive effects upon intrinsic motivation. However,he impact of PCIG was completely mediated by PCIH. The media-ion process produced a stronger effect on intrinsic motivation for

ale employees than for female employees. In addition, the posi-ive relationship between PCIG and PCIH was stronger for femalemployees than for male employees.

cknowledgement

The authors would like to thank the Regional Editor, Dr. Thomp-on S.H. Teo, and three anonymous reviewers for their valuableomments to improve this paper.

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Xiaogang Chen is an Associate Professor in the School of Business Administrationat Southwestern University of Finance and Economics, China. He received his PhDin information technology from the University of Texas at San Antonio. His researchinterests include information privacy, knowledge management in distributed teams,open source software, and electronic payment.

Jing Ma is an Associate Professor in the School of Business Administration at South-western University of Finance and Economics. She holds a PhD in managementinformation system from Stevens Institute of Technology. She is interested in virtualteams and innovation, focusing on analyzing and evaluating different informationtechnologies and their impacts on group collaboration and innovation.

Jiafei Jin is an Associate Professor of Human Resource Management at SouthwesternUniversity of Finance and Economics, China. He received his PhD in human resourcemanagement from the University of Bristol, UK. His research interests include inter-national HRM, cross cultural management and gender issues in Chinese societies.

western University of Finance and Economics, China. She received her PhD fromCambridge University. Her research interests include international HRM, crosscultural management, HRM in China, gender in Asia Pacific countries, industrialrelations and employment law.